THIS POST IS CONTINUED FROM PART 5, BELOW--
Water budgeting is often compared to managing a savings account: The starting point is field capacity (see definitions, above), and as water is removed and the “savings balance” drops, it is replaced as needed by the crop. Water budgeting is a quantitative approach using existing models that analyze temperature and crop water use to determine evapotranspiration (ET) rates.
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies.
Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor through stomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator
Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is a representation of the environmental demand for evapotranspiration and represents the evapotranspiration rate of a short green crop (grass), completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.
It is a reflection of the energy available to evaporate water, and of the wind available to transport the water vapour from the ground up into the lower atmosphere.
It is a reflection of the energy available to evaporate water, and of the wind available to transport the water vapour from the ground up into the lower atmosphere.
Often a value for the potential evapotranspiration is calculated at a nearby climatic station on a reference surface, conventionally short grass. This value is called the reference evapotranspiration . Actual evapotranspiration is said to equal potential evapotranspiration when there is ample water
Soil water balance refers to the amount of water held in the soil and is similar to a checkbook balance. Because soil can hold a limited amount of water, knowing the soil water balance reduces the risk of applying too much water resulting in deep percolation or runoff. It also assures that irrigation can occur in a timely fashion to avoid crop stress.
The process of applying the right amount of water at the right time is irrigation scheduling. Without knowing the soil water balance, irrigation scheduling is not possible.
The goal of irrigation management is to maintain a soil water balance between field capacity and a minimum balance . As a result water can be applied before plant stress occurs and without over filling the root zone.
If a plant's soil has too much water, the roots can rot, and the plant can't get enough oxygen from the soil. If there is not enough water for a plant, the nutrients it needs cannot travel through the plant. A plant cannot grow if it doesn't have healthy roots, so the proper balance of water is key when growing plants
If the moisture content of a soil is optimum for plant growth, plants can readily absorb soil water. ... Much of water remains in the soil as a thin film. Soil water dissolves salts and makes up the soil solution, which is important as medium for supply of nutrients to growing plants.
Soil tensiometers and Electrical Resistance Sensing Devices (ERSDs) are the instruments most commonly used to measure soil moisture
Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since the direct gravimetric measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying, and weighting of a sample, soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content indirectly by using some other property of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the moisture content.
The relation between the measured property and soil moisture must be calibrated and may vary depending on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature, or electric conductivity. Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the soil moisture and is used for remote sensing in hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe instruments can be used by farmers or gardeners.
Soil moisture sensors typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water content. Another class of sensors measure another property of moisture in soils called water potential; these sensors are usually referred to as soil water potential sensors and include tensiometers and gypsum blocks.
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the opening of the stomata. Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the leaf.
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature rises. At 86°F, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 68°F.
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf happens more rapidly.
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by drier air.
A plant can continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is made up by replacement water from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor rigidity caused by pressure of water against cell walls occurs and the stomata close.
This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.
The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been scientifically estimated in USA that over the growing season, one acre of corn plants may transpire 400,000 gallons of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches deep.
A tensiometer in soil science is a measuring instrument used to determine the matric water potential (soil moisture tension) in the vadose zone. This device typically consists of a glass or plastic tube with a porous ceramic cup, and is filled with water.
The top of the tube has either a built-in vacuum gauge or a rubber cap used with a portable puncture tensiometer instrument, which uses a hypodermic needle to measure the pressure inside the tensiometer. The tensiometer is buried in the soil, and a hand pump is used to pull a partial vacuum.
The top of the tube has either a built-in vacuum gauge or a rubber cap used with a portable puncture tensiometer instrument, which uses a hypodermic needle to measure the pressure inside the tensiometer. The tensiometer is buried in the soil, and a hand pump is used to pull a partial vacuum.
As water is pulled out of the soil by plants and evaporation, the vacuum inside the tube increases. As water is added to the soil, the vacuum inside the tube pulls moisture from the soil and decreases. As the water in tensiometer is considered to be equilibrium with the soil water, the gauge reading of the tensiometer represents the matric potential of the soil.
Such tensiometers are used in irrigation scheduling to help farmers and other irrigation managers to determine when to water. In conjunction with a water retention curve, tensiometers can be used to determine how much to water. With practice, a tensiometer can be a useful tool for these purposes. Soil tensiometers can also be used in the scientific study of soils and plants.
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure . Hence, the vadose zone extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table.
Water in the vadose zone has a pressure head less than atmospheric pressure, and is retained by a combination of adhesion (funiculary groundwater), and capillary action (capillary groundwater). If the vadose zone envelops soil, the water contained therein is termed soil moisture.
In fine grained soils, capillary action can cause the pores of the soil to be fully saturated above the water table at a pressure less than atmospheric. The vadose zone does not include the area that is still saturated above the water table, often referred to as the capillary fringe
Tensiometers and ERSDs provide soil/water tension readings that can be used to establish irrigation schedules adequate to maintain soil moisture at levels conducive to good crop growth and productivity
Evapotranspiration (ET) - many factors affect ET, including weather parameters such as solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed; soil factors such as soil texture, structure, density, and chemistry; and plant factors such as plant type, root depth, foliar density, height, and stage of growth.
Evaporation is the transformation of water from a liquid into a gas. Water volatilizes into the air easily, especially when it is hot and windy. Evaporation happens only at the surface of a liquid, so the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio of the water, the greater the evaporation rate. This means that you lose more water to evaporation from water sprayed in drops into the air than you do from water in a drip tape line or in an irrigation canal or ditch.
The evaporation rate (i.e., the time it takes for a certain amount of water to volatilize) for a given day can be measured. One way is by placing a known quantity of water in a container of a known surface area and timing how long it takes to disappear. Water budgets are analogous to maintaining a balanced checkbook.
Additions of irrigation water or rainwater are “deposits” and water use by plants as well as evaporation from the soil surface are “withdrawals.” The starting point for a water budget is a soil saturated from either irrigation or rainfall. From that initial point of saturation, water depletion is monitored and water is applied as needed to maintain a “balanced” system to optimize plant growth.
Crop evapotranspiration rate (ETc) equals the crop coefficient (Kc) multiplied by the reference crop evapotranspiration rate (ETo). Crop coefficients are properties of plants used in predicting evapotranspiration (ET).
Soil moisture sensors tensiometers and electrical resistance sensing devices (ERSDs) are the instruments most commonly used in measuring soil moisture.
Measuring soil moisture is important for agricultural applications to help farmers manage their irrigation systems more efficiently. Knowing the exact soil moisture conditions on their fields, not only are farmers able to generally use less water to grow a crop, they are also able to increase yields and the quality of the crop by improved management of soil moisture during critical plant growth stages..
Golf courses use soil moisture sensors to increase the efficiency of their irrigation systems to prevent over-watering
Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since the direct gravimetric measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying, and weighting of a sample, soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content indirectly by using some other property of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the moisture content.
The relation between the measured property and soil moisture must be calibrated and may vary depending on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature, or electric conductivity. Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the soil moisture and is used for remote sensing in hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe instruments can be used by farmers or gardeners.
Soil moisture sensors typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water content. Another class of sensors measure another property of moisture in soils called water potential; these sensors are usually referred to as soil water potential sensors and include tensiometers and gypsum blocks.
Technologies commonly used to indirectly measure volumetric water content (soil moisture) include)---
Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR): The dielectric constant of a certain volume element around the sensor is obtained by measuring the operating frequency of an oscillating circuit.
Time Domain Transmission (TDT) and Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR): The dielectric constant of a certain volume element around the sensor is obtained by measuring the speed of propagation along a buried transmission line.
Neutron moisture gauges: The moderator properties of water for neutrons are utilized to estimate soil moisture content between a source and detector probe.
Soil resistivity: Measuring how strongly the soil resists the flow of electricity between two electrodes can be used to determine the soil moisture content.
Galvanic cell: The amount of water present can be determined based on the voltage the soil produces because water acts as an electrolyte and produces electricity. The technology behind this concept is the galvanic cell.
Two tensiometers are often placed next to each other so that soil moisture can be monitored at different depths at the same location. The deeper location tends to maintain a higher percentage of moisture compared to the more shallow placement, and this difference provides the irrigator with a good representation of below-ground moisture dynamics that can be a great help in determining both timing and amounts of water needed to meet the crop’s needs over time.
Tensiometers should be placed at a number of locations across the field to reflect different soil and irrigation conditions. They should be left in place for the duration of the crop cycle and read as often as once a day to inform irrigation scheduling decisions.
Placement location and method of installation are critical for accuracy. Tensiometers should be placed within the root zone directly in the “wetted” area that receives either drip or sprinkler irrigation. . In drip-irrigated systems, place the tensiometers off to the side of the drip line but still within the wetting pattern of the drip.
Prior to placing the tensiometer in the soil the semi-porous ceramic tip must be soaked in water overnight to insure that it is adequately moist so that water can easily move from the sealed tube into the surrounding soil.
Once installed it usually takes several readings over a period of several days to start getting accurate readings.
Tensiometers have a water reservoir above the sealed column of water that resupplies the plastic column, since the plant roots constantly extract very small quantities of water from the sealed tube.
Electrical Resistance Sensing Devices In many ways electrical resistance sensing devices (ERSDs) are similar to tensiometers—the main difference is the method used to measure soil moisture.
ERSDs utilize two “electrodes” cast into a porous material (often gypsum based). The two electrodes in the “block” are attached to wires that run from the ERSD to the surface. These wires are often protected within a ½-inch PVC tube that is attached to the ERSD. The ESRDs are buried in the soil at various depths and locations, similar to tensiometers, and like the tensiometer, a soil/water slurry is used when the ERSD is installed to establish good soil contact with the instrument.
To get a reading from the ERSD the irrigator uses a small, inexpensive, hand-held electrical resistance meter that is temporarily connected to the wire leads from the buried ERSD. The meter allows a very low electrical current to flow between the two electrodes in the ERSD and displays an electrical resistance reading.
This reading reflects the amount of moisture within the porous material, since the buried ERSD takes on the moisture properties of the surrounding soil. Due to the electrical conductivity potential of water, the higher the concentration of moisture within the porous block the lower the resistance and, conversely, the lower the concentration of moisture within the block the higher the resistance.
At field capacity the block is wet; as the growing plants start to extract moisture from the soil, the moisture is also pulled from the ERSD and the conductivity reading will reflect this change in soil moisture. Note that high salt concentrations in the soil solution will affect the accuracy of the reading, since salts increase electrical conductivity. This potential salt impact needs to be taken into account when deciding which monitoring tool is best suited to your farm.
Electrical resistance sensing devices are relatively inexpensive and easy to install and monitor. Like tensiometers, they are left in the field for the duration of the cropping cycle and provide critical irrigation scheduling information that enables the irrigation manager to make informed decisions about irrigation frequency and quantity based on site-specific data.
.
Organic annual crop production is more reliant on tillage and cultivation for weed management and seedbed preparation. Tillage is the organic alternative to chemical weed control. Tillage can be very effective at reducing weed populations,
Mechanical, or manual, weed control techniques manage weed populations through physical methods that remove, injure, kill, or make the growing conditions unfavorable. Some of these methods cause direct damage to the weeds through complete removal or causing a lethal injury.
In agriculture, a harrow is an implement for breaking up and smoothing out the surface of the soil. In this way it is distinct in its effect from the plough, which is used for deeper tillage.
Harrowing is often carried out on fields to follow the rough finish left by plowing operations. The purpose of this harrowing is generally to break up clods (lumps of soil) and to provide a finer finish, a good tilth or soil structure that is suitable for seedbed use.
Coarser harrowing may also be used to remove weeds and to cover seed after sowing. Harrows differ from cultivators in that they disturb the whole surface of the soil, such as to prepare a seedbed, instead of disturbing only narrow trails that skirt crop rows (to kill weeds).
Before rice can be planted, the soil should be in the best physical condition for crop growth and the soil surface is level. Land preparation involves plowing and harrowing to ‘till’ or dig-up, mix and level the soil.
Next, the land is leveled to reduce the amount of water wasted by uneven pockets of too-deep water or exposed soil. Effective land leveling allows the seedlings to become established more easily, reduces the amount of effort required to manage the crop, and increases both grain quality and yields.
Transplanting is the most popular plant establishment technique across Asia. Pre- germinated seedlings are transferred from a seedbed to the wet field. It requires less seed and is an effective method to control weeds, but requires more labor. Seedlings may be transplanted by either machine or hand.
Direct seeding involves broadcasting dry seed or pre-germinated seeds and seedlings by hand or planting them by machine. In rainfed and deepwater ecosystems, dry seed is manually broadcast onto the soil surface and then incorporated either by ploughing or by harrowing while the soil is still dry. In irrigated areas, seed is normally pre- germinated prior to broadcasting.
Organic crop production practices such as crop rotation, use of clean seed, careful use of tillage between crops, and good crop husbandry reduce problems with weeds. However, some weeds are likely to be found in the crop, and can cause yield loss if allowed to compete with the crop throughout the growing season.
Nutrient management is the science and practice directed to link soil, crop, weather, and hydrologic factors with cultural, irrigation, and soil and water conservation practices to achieve optimal nutrient use efficiency, crop yields, crop quality, and economic returns, while reducing off-site transport of nutrients (fertilizer) that may impact the environment.
It involves matching a specific field soil, climate, and crop management conditions to rate, source, timing, and place (commonly known as the 4R nutrient stewardship) of nutrient application
Important factors that need to be considered when managing nutrients include (a) the application of nutrients considering the achievable optimum yields and, in some cases, crop quality; (b) the management, application, and timing of nutrients using a budget based on all sources and sinks active at the site; and (c) the management of soil, water, and crop to minimize the off-site transport of nutrients from nutrient leaching out of the root zone, surface runoff, and volatilization (or other gas exchanges).
Of the 16 essential plant nutrients, nitrogen is usually the most difficult to manage in field crop systems. This is because the quantity of plant-available nitrogen can change rapidly in response to changes in soil water status. Nitrogen can be lost from the plant-soil system by one or more of the following processes: leaching; surface runoff; soil erosion; ammonia volatilization; and denitrification.
Because synthetic fertilizers are generally not allowed in organic systems, the majority of nutrients must come from plant-derived or animal-derived products, in which nutrients are combined with carbon (C).
In organic systems, the N and C cycles are closely linked and nutrients, particularly N, must be managed with this in mind.
Compared to conventional fertilizers, most organic fertilizers have lower concentrations of nutrients and act more slowly because nutrient release depends on the level of soil biological activity in order to digest the applied materials. As a result, some portion of the nutrients will be released months subsequent to the application.
Compost is an important soil amendment for many organic farms because it provides an inoculum of beneficial soil organisms as well as humus, micronutrients, and slow-release N, P, and K. When farms or fields with poor soil health and low nutrient levels are first brought into organic production, heavy compost applications (10–20 tons per acre) can be the quickest way to improve soil fertility.
Crop rotations are required on organic farms and are used to reduce pest and disease problems, reduce weed pressure, reduce soil erosion, build organic matter, and support a diverse soil microbial community.
Rotations that include several crops of different plant families support better soil health than simpler rotations. A diverse crop rotation that includes legumes and deep rooted crops can enhance the efficient cycling and utilization of crop nutrients. On sloping land, integrating a conservation crop rotation with other practices such as strip cropping or contour buffer strips can greatly reduce soil erosion and protect soil health.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), is to reduce or mitigate the risks ssociated with a particular pest suppression technique to specific natural resources (e.g. water, pollinators and other beneficial organisms). This standard defines IPM differently than some producers, who may think of IPM as a long-term system that focuses on prevention of pests through a combination of strategies such as biological controls, cultural practices and resistant varieties.
Some pesticides allowed in organic farming can pose significant risks to natural resources, such as pyrethrum to fish, spinosad to bees, or any botanical or soap-based pesticide to nontarget and beneficial arthropods.
The organic approach of prevention and avoidance is consistent with the definition of IPM.
To maintain healthy soil, organic farmers control erosion, feed and protect the soil life, and replenish organic matter as well as plant nutrients. They adopt diverse crop rotations to balance nutrient demands on the soil, protect and enhance soil life, and control erosion by maintaining good tilth, planting cover crops, and adopting other conservation practices.
Producers support biodiversity by providing habitat for wildlife, pollinators and other organisms in cultivated and uncultivated areas of the farming system.
As soil organisms decompose organic residues, they release plant-available nutrients to support the next season’s growth, and form humus that sustains soil quality. Mimicking this natural cycle, producers replenish soil organic matter and nutrients by returning animal and green manures, crop residues, and other organic sources to the soil, thereby maintaining soil fertility and crop yields. These practices feed the soil, and the soil feeds the crop.
When crops need additional nutrients, organic producers choose plant, animal, and natural mineral-based fertilizers, most of which release nutrients gradually through the action of soil organisms. Synthetic fertilizers are prohibited in organic production systems.
Crop rotations that include cover crops and a mix of deep and shallow-rooted crops may enhance nutrient and water utilization and cycling within the soil . Integration of crop and livestock production can enhance nutrient cycling, as livestock consume on-farm forages and crop residues, and provide nutrient-rich manure for subsequent crop production.
Organic systems attempt to mirror nature by maintaining biodiversity on the farm. Producers diversify and rotate crops, and plant field edges with flowering plants to support pollinators and other beneficial organisms.
Fields may include hedge and tree rows of varied species, providing wildlife habitat and structural biodiversity above and below ground. Wildlife corridors and wildlife-friendly fences maintain connectivity for wide-ranging wildlife such as deer and predators.
Without access to many herbicides, organic producers often use tillage in annual crop production as a tool to manage weeds and cover crops without herbicides. Recent advances in organic no-till and conservation tillage systems, such as the roller-crimper, and the use of flame weeders and mulches, have helped organic producers reduce the intensity of soil disturbance in annual crop rotations.
In addition, planting “subsoiling” cover crops (deep-rooted plants that can break up a hard pan in the soil) such as tillage radish, sorghum grass hybrids, and clovers allow producers to accomplish biologically what has traditionally been done with mechanical subsoilers and other deep tillage implements.
While it is recognized that tillage to control weeds reduces soil organic carbon, the rotation, cover crop, and manure management practices employed generally increase soil carbon levels in organic production systems.
Collection of crop varieties and crop seed for organic production reflects the organic principles of working with nature (i.e., plant what will grow well locally in an organic system). Organic farmers seek out and plant varieties that tolerate locally prevalent pests and diseases with minimum intervention, and that perform well in the farm’s climate and soils. Many prefer locally or regionally produced seed, which may show enhanced adaptation to local conditions.
Tilth-- a composite term for the overall physical characteristics of a soil (such as texture, structure, permeability, consistence, drainage, and water-holding capacity)
Primary cultivation loosens and opens untilled or compacted soils, allowing greater ease of root penetration and more desirable air/gas and water relations.
Cultivation promotes soil particle aggregation by vertically distributing organic matter (e.g., cover crops, compost) and soil amendments, which provide energy and nutrients to the soil organisms responsible for soil aggregate formation.
The rearrangement of soil particles encourages the formation of chemical bonds that also create soil aggregates. Secondary cultivation decreases surface soil particle size to produce a quality seedbed.
Cultivation increases soil air/gas exchange with the atmosphere. Cultivation timed to take place when beds are appropriately moist (50%–75% of field capacity) immediately increases soil pore space and aeration, allowing for the rapid diffusion of atmospheric gases into the soil.
These gases, which include nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, are vital components of soil air that are critical for plant growth. Proper cultivation techniques and the addition of organic matter and soil amendments encourage the development of good crumb structure.
This creates a more permanent network of pore spaces, allowing for the continual, passive exchange of atmospheric and soil gases, ease of penetration by plant roots, and water infiltration, percolation, and drainage.
i. Nitrogen (N2 ): Increased atmospheric nitrogen (N2 ) levels in the soil can be used by both soil and root bacteria to fix plant-available forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (NO3 ) and ammonium
ii. Oxygen (O2 ): When combined with organic matter inputs, elevated soil oxygen levels may increase soil biological diversity, stimulate soil biological activity, and increase the rate of microbial decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Soil aeration replenishes the soil oxygen reservoir that is continually being taken up through plant oots for use in respiration.
iii. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ): Cultivation allows for the movement of CO2 out of the soil, to be replaced with oxygen and nitrogen
b) Increase water infiltration, percolation, retention, and drainage characteristics. A soil made more permeable through proper tillage allows water to infiltrate the soil and percolate slowly downward, draining into the subsoil at rates optimal for both crop plants and soil microbes.
c) Soil aeration increases the rate of mineralization and the release of plant-available nutrients into the soil solution for uptake by plant roots
To increase the temperature of cold soils in the spring Soil air warms more quickly than soil water and soil solids. Soils with well-developed aggregations and adequate pore space maintain more desirable drainage characteristics and therefore dry and increase in temperature more rapidly than soils having fewer pore spaces.
Biological activity and biogeochemical reactions increase at higher soil temperatures, with soil temperatures of 50–55ºF being a threshold below which soil icrobial activity rates and plant growth slow dramatically.
To incorporate soil amendments -- Cultivation is a practical means of incorporating compost and other soil amendments, including mineral and non-mineral fertilizers, cover crops, and crop residues. Cultivation may be used to incorporate soil amendments to desired soil depths in order to increase the immediate or long-term availability of essential plant nutrients or to improve the physical, biological, and/or chemical properties of the soil.
a) Composts, manures, and fertilizers: Tillage and cultivation techniques are needed to incorporate organic matter amendments beneath the soil surface in order to avoid the loss of carbon and volatile nitrogen compounds through surface oxidation. Tillage may also be used to evenly distribute organic matter amendments for general soil improvement or to place fertilizers in particular locations for specific short-term crop nutrient requirements (i.e., banding).
b) Incorporation of mineral amendments and other soil amendments (e.g., bone meal, fish meal, etc.): Soil amendments must be incorporated into the soil to allow for additional biological or chemical decomposition and to liberate and cycle essential plant nutrients
To manage crop residues and cover crops a) Crop residues: Tillage is used both in hand-worked gardens and in mechanized systems to incorporate crop residues. This process cycles the organic matter and nutrients held in the crop tissues back into the soil and prepares the site for subsequent cropping.
Cover crops: Tillage is also used to incorporate cover crops in order to cycle organic matter and nutrients held in the cover crop tissues back into the soil and to prepare the site for subsequent cropping. The nutrients liberated as cover crops decompose may be a significant source of essential plant nutrients for a given season’s crop production.
To control weeds -- Cultivation is a practical means of destroying annual weeds and weakening crowns and rhizomes of perennial weeds. Because cultivation stimulates germination of annual weed seeds, multiple cultivations prior to transplanting or direct sowing as well as throughout the crop cycle may be needed to reduce the soil weed seed bank and thereby reduce weed competition with cultivated crops.
To create particulate seedbeds -- Secondary tillage techniques may be used to render surface soil particle sizes in proper proportion to the size of the transplant or seed being sown. Fine-seeded crops (e.g., carrots, arugula) and transplants with small root systems (e.g., lettuce, alliums) require a fine or small surface soil particle size. Large-seeded crops (e.g., squash, beans, corn) and large, vigorous transplants (e.g., tomatoes) may be placed in a more coarsely tilled soil.
To manage plant pathogens and insect pests-- Timely plowing under of crop residue can be an effective means of controlling (or minimizing) certain insect pests and plant pathogens
To retain soil moisture -- Secondary tillage techniques may be used to intentionally pulverize the surface soil. This practice creates a fine dust layer that interrupts the capillary action of water, thereby reducing the loss of soil moisture to the atmosphere through evaporation. Such methods are frequently used to conserve soil moisture in non-irrigated (dry-farmed) farming operations.
Cropping system --
a) Annual cropping system: Annual cropping systems feature intensive cropping of nutrient-demanding plants, which necessitates a high frequency of soil tillage, resulting in both organic matter and plant nutrient losses. Annual cropping systems demand high inputs of organic matter and mineral amendments to counter losses.
b) Perennial cropping system: Perennial cropping systems require little or no tillage after initial planting and demand only periodic surface cultivation or mowing to manage competing vegetation; note that the material in this manual refers mainly to annual row crop systems
Frequent and intensive soil cultivation (along with excessive tractor and foot traffic)— especially if done when the soil is too wet—can lead to a number of negative impacts on soil structure.
Possible impacts include: Decreases in soil organic matter content: Intensive cultivation in irrigated soils increases and sustains the oxidation rate of soil organic matter. Without periodic replacement of organic matter, soils subjected to intensive tillage will become exhausted of their active humus content, leading to the degradation of soil biological, physical, and chemical properties.
Soil organic matter is the energy source for many soil organisms. Soils with low or exhausted soil organic matter cannot support large populations or a great diversity of soil microbes, which are responsible for the liberation of plant nutrients, disease suppression, and the development and maintenance of certain physical properties of the soil, particularly aggregation and overall granular/crumb structure.
Soil organic matter is a reservoir of all essential plant nutrients, significantly contributing to the cation exchange capacity of the soil. Soil organic matter holds many times its weight in water, buffering the soil against extreme moisture variations.
Loss of soil organic matter and degradation of soil structure result in loss of soil pore space (indicated by increased bulk density readings on a soil test) and reduce the soil’s ability to passively exchange gases with the atmosphere
Loss of soil organic matter and degradation of soil structure reduce the soil’s ability to readily drain excess moisture
Frequent and deep cultivation and the aeration of the soil environment disrupt earthworm habitat, kill some earthworms in the process of cultivation, and expose others to predation
The main objective of cultivation is to promote and maintain good tilth. Tilth is a composite term for the overall physical characteristics of a soil (texture, structure, permeability, consistence, drainage, and water-holding capacity).
In short, tilth equals the workability of a soil in relationship to its ability to grow plants, as in “this soil has good tilth!” Soil microbes also require oxygen in order to flourish: 80–90% of the beneficial microbes exist in the top 6–8 inches of the soil, where aeration and warmth are optimal.
Respiration is a process by which carbohydrates made by photosynthesis are converted into energy for work. Just as humans need energy for bodily functions, so do plants and microbes. The better and deeper the soil aeration, the less energy is expended by plant roots to push through the soil to get air, water, and nutrients, which translates to quicker and more vigorous subsequent growth and maturation.
Plants’ needs for air, water, and nutrients are best met when the soil has a continuous system of large- and intermediate-size pores from the surface to the subsoil through which water can enter, infiltrate, percolate, and drain while soil air is constantly being replenished from the atmosphere.
Roots don’t grow in soil but in the interstitial spaces between soil solids—the pore spaces.
A dry soil warms more quickly than a wet one, principally because the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of water is much greater than that required to warm soil solids and soil air.
In poorly aerated soils, if water can’t drain freely it takes a large amount of energy to evaporate the moisture via solar radiation.
Reactions (biological and chemical) happen faster at higher temperatures. Thus the decomposition of organic matter by microbes, as well as water and nutrient uptake by plants, happen more quickly as soil warms: 50–55ºF is a threshold figure above which there is noticeable growth, and below which growth is negligible.
The decomposed remains of microorganisms can contribute up to 20% of the total organic matter content of biologically active soils. Green manures, crop residues (roots as well as tops) and weeds, as well as intentional grass/legume cover crops incorporated into soils on a regular basis serve as fundamental building blocks of organic matter and plant nutrition (fertilizer).
When organic matter is added to a soil via cultivation, the plant residues cement or bind soil particles together as a result of gels, gums, and glues that are byproducts of decomposition. Mycelial strands or webs of fungi also bind soil particles together.
Plant propagation is the process of growing new plants from a variety of sources: seeds, cuttings, and other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the artificial or natural dispersal of plants. Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically produced from sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic recombination has occurred. A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics from its parents
Sexual Propagation--
1. Definition: The intentional reproduction of a new generation of plants by the germination and growth of seeds that were created in the previous generation through the fertilization of a plant ovary via the union of male and female sex cells. Results in a genetically unique plant generation.
Asexual propagation is the reproduction of plants by means of division, cuttings, tissue culture, etc. This process occurs in nature, but is a primary method for reproducing many ornamental cultivars and the vast majority of fruits, berries, and nuts.
Clonal or asexual propagation results in a new generation of plants genetically identical to the parent or source plant, thus carrying forward all desirable/known characteristics in a predictable manner.
Types of plants grown from seed ---
a) Annuals: Plants that germinate, grow vegetatively, flower, and produce seeds, thus completing their entire life cycle within a single year. Sexual propagation (propagation using seeds) is the only practical means of propagation for annuals.
b) Biennials: Plants that complete their entire life cycle within two years. Growth is primarily vegetative in year one. In year two, growth is directed primarily toward reproduction in response to vernalization: The process wherein plants are exposed to decreasing day length and temperature followed by increasing day length and temperature. This process occurs in temperate climates when plants go from one growing season, through Winter and into the following Spring. Sexual propagation is the only practical means of reproducing biennial crops.
c) Perennials: Plants that live more than two years. Once beyond their juvenile life phase, perennials grow vegetatively, flower, and produce seeds every year. The life span of perennials depends on the genetics of the species and the environmental conditions in which the plants are growing. By definition, perennials can live three to thousands of years, but lifespan within a particular species tends to vary. Perennials can be grown from seed, although many are reproduced asexually/vegetatively to hasten maturity, maintain genetic uniformity, and therefore retain desired morphological characteristics.
3. Open pollinated (OP) and hybrid seed --
a) Open-pollinated seed: Produced when a parent plant is fertilized by another member of the same genetically stable population. Offspring bear traits or qualities that closely resemble the parent population.
These seeds may come from:--
b) F1 Hybrid seeds: The product of cross pollination of two different, but homogeneous inbred, stable lines, each of which contribute desirable characteristics to the subsequent generation. Seeds saved from this next generation typically possess a highly heterogeneous nature and will produce offspring unlike the hybrid parent population.
B. Seed Germination and Early Seedling Development
1. Necessary pre-conditions for seed germination--
a) Viability: Seeds must contain living, healthy embryonic tissue capable of germination.
i. Viability depends upon the full development of the embryo and endosperm (nutrient storage tissue) during the development of the seed
ii. Viability is also contingent upon maintaining the health of the embryo and endosperm from seed maturation through seed sowing. Moisture within the seed, nutrient reserves, and an embryo’s potential to germinate are finite, as determined by the genetics of the species and by the environmental conditions during seed storage.
b) Many species also exhibit dormancy factors that inhibit or delay seed germination. Dormant seed cannot germinate under what would otherwise be conditions favorable for germination until dormancy factors have been overcome. Physical and chemical dormancy are more common in native species and plants from more extreme environments than in commonly grown vegetable and flower crops.
i. Physical dormancy (e.g., hard, thick seed coats): Can be broken by soaking, scarifying, exposure to soil microorganisms. Methods are species specific
ii. Chemical dormancy: Growers replicate natural processes and environmental conditions to break internal chemical/metabolic conditions preventing seed germination (e.g., leaching, cold/moist stratification, fire scarification, etc.)
2. Environmental factors involved in germination are typically both atmospheric and edaphic (soil related). Biotic factors, such as pests, pathogens, weeds, and microbes can also be involved.
a) Temperature: For ungerminated seed, temperature is normally discussed in reference to soil temperature. All seeds have minimum, maximum, and optimal soil temperature ranges within which germination is possible (see Appendix 3, Soil Temperature Conditions for Vegetable Seed Germination).
i. Minimum: Lowest temperature at which seeds can effectively germinate. As compared to temperatures in the optimal range for a given species, days to emergence will be long, percent germination will be low and rate of subsequent growth will be slow when temperatures approach the minimum threshold for a given species.
Propagation/Greenhouse Management--
ii. Maximum: Each species has an uppermost temperature at which germination can occur. Above this threshold, injury or dormancy are often induced. Nearing this threshold, percent of germination often declines and days to emergence may increase.
iii. Optimal: Every species has on optimal temperature and corollary temperature range in which the percent germination is highest and days to emergence is the lowest. This is the target range to strive for when managing greenhouse facilities or sowing seeds outdoors.
iv. In addition to optimal temperatures, some species either require or benefit from daynight temperature fluctuation. Many small-seeded species, which best germinate near the soil surface, benefit from the temperature fluctuation that normally occurs at the soil surface. Germination may be inhibited in species requiring temperature fluctuation if seeds are buried too deeply, as temperatures typically remain more constant at depth.
b) Moisture: All seeds require moisture to initiate metabolic processes and support germination. Seeds imbibe water from the soil pores in direct contact with the seed; as this soil dries, oisture is replaced by capillary action from nearby soil pores, helping facilitate germination. For most seeds, field soil or propagation media should be maintained at or above 50%–75% of field capacity during the germination phase, and have a firm, fine texture to provide good seed-to-soil contact.
c) Aeration: Soil/media must allow for gas exchange to and from the germinating embryo i. Oxygen (02 ) dissolved into the soil media is required to facilitate embryonic respiration
ii. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ), a byproduct of respiration, must be able to dissipate and move away from the seed
Note that good soil structure enhances gas exchange, whereby gases can move into and out of the soil via the pore spaces between soil particles. Avoiding overwatering and allowing for adequate infiltration of water and subsequent dry down between irrigations also promote gas exchange. Excessive irrigation and/or poorly drained soils can limit germination and development when oxygen is crowded out of the pore spaces by persistent moisture.
d) Light can either induce or release dormancy, depending on the species. The effect of light on sensitive species results either from light quality (wavelength) or photoperiod (the duration of exposure.) Most cultivated crops express minimal or no sensitivity to light during germination, in large part due to millennia of grower and breeder selection for consistency and reliability of germination.
i. Most species germinate best under dark conditions by being slightly buried in the soil medium, and in some cases (e.g., Phacelia, Allium, Phlox) germination may be inhibited by light. Light inhibition is particularly common in desert species, where germination in the presence of light would likely lead to desiccation and death due to the normally dry conditions of the soil surface.
ii. Seeds of certain species (e.g., Lactuca, Begonia, Primula, Coleus) require exposure, however brief, to light to induce germination. This is particularly common amongst small-seeded species and is thought to be an evolutionary mechanism to prevent germination when seed is buried deeply in the soil, where a germinating seed may exhaust its resources before emerging above ground to begin photosynthesizing.
iii. The effect of light on germination should not be confused with necessity of light for seedling development. All seedlings require sunlight for photosynthesis and continued development.
3. Physiological steps in germination: A three-phase process leading to the emergence of roots and above-ground growth
Seed Biology, Germination, & Development --
a) Phase 1: Imbibition. Rapid initial uptake of water by the dry seed, followed by a brief but gradual continuation of water uptake. This softens and swells the seed coat and occurs even in seeds that are no longer viable.
b) Phase 2: Interim or lag phase. Water uptake greatly reduced; internal physiological processes begin. From the outside, little appears to be happening, but this is a very active physiological and metabolic period within the seed.
i. Activation of mitochondria within cells of the seed: Supporting increased cellular respiration and energy production
ii. Protein synthesis: Translation of stored RNA to fuel continued germination
iii. Metabolism and use of stored nutrient reserves to fuel development
iv. Enzyme production and synthesis, leading to the loosening of cell walls around the embryo and root radicle, which will ease subsequent cell enlargement, division, and elongation
c) Phase 3: Root radical emergence. Initially, root radicle emergence results from cell enlargement, but this is rapidly followed by cell division and elongation as the root radicle pushes into the surrounding soil media.
d) The processes internal to the seed and the below-ground emergence of the root radicle define the process of germination. However, from a grower’s perspective, we typically discuss germination in relation to when the plumule or embryonic shoot emerges above the soil surface. It is at this point that we’re most aware of germination and must shift our management practices, particularly to manage for relative wet to dry swings in the soil to prevent the presence damping off organisms and other pathogens ..
Managing Environmental Conditions—Using Greenhouses to Optimize Seedling Production).
4. Early seedling development: Processes and shifting needs
a) Continued cell division-extension of root radical and root tip from base of embryo axis, into the soil medium. Initial root development is unbranched and taproot-like.
b) Emergence of plumule or growing point of the shoot, from upper end of the embryo axis. Initial, above-ground seedling development follows one of two patterns, either:
i. Epigeous germination: Ongoing elongation of the hypocotyl, raising the cotyledons above ground where they provide stored nutrient transfer and initial photosynthesis, until the emergence of the first set of true leaves. This normally occurs within 24 hours of above-ground emergence.
ii. Hypogeous germination: The hypocotyl does not continue to expand, and only the epicotyl emerges above ground, soon followed by true leaves. The cotyledons deliver nutrients for early development, but usually remain at or below the soil surface, and photosynthesis comes exclusively from the true leaves.
c) Overall weight of seedling increases throughout developmental stages, while weight of storage tissue decreases as stored nutrients are consumed by the growing seedling
d) Rate of respiration and volume of water uptake steadily increase with ongoing cell division concurrent with the expansion of roots and above-ground shoots
e) As seedlings continue to develop through cell division and elongation, depending on the root nature the species, a taproot, fibrous, or branched root system will develop, with fine root hairs developing to increase the overall surface area available for enhanced water and nutrient uptake
f) Development of true leaves, roughly concurrent with development of branched root system in most species, begins process of effective photosynthesis, helping to fuel continued growth
Propagation/Greenhouse Management --
C. Typical Life Cycle of Seedlings Grown in the Greenhouse: Timeline for Days to Seedling Maturity
1. The duration of seedling life cycle and growth rate depend on a number of factors
a) Photoperiod and the hours of light available to support growth. For most species longer days translate into more rapid seedling growth, shorter days mean slower growth.
b) Temperatures within, above, or below the desirable range to stimulate or constrain growth
c) Sufficient, consistent moisture to fuel growth. Too much or too little can inhibit normal development.
d) Air circulation and gas exchange both above ground and in the root zone. Both are critical to healthy seedling development and timely development, while too little circulation or exchange invariably slows growth.
e) Nutrient availability, although note that excess nutrients may make for lush, weak growth, vulnerable to pest, diseases, moisture, and temperature stress. Limited nutrient supply will likely mean slow growth and poor performance. Appropriate nutrient supply will fuel steady, uninterrupted growth and reduce vulnerabilities.
f) Container type and cell size, with seedlings maturing as smaller transplants more rapidly in smaller cells and more slowly as larger transplants in larger cells
Internal metabolic processes in motion
Emergence of root radicle
Expansion of root radicle and emergence of root hairs
Epigeous germination beginning
Epigeous germination continues, cotyledons begin to unfold, and root system expands
Emergence of true leaves and shoot tip fully visible; and branched root system expands rapidly
Qualities/Characteristics of Seedlings Ready for Transplanting--
1. Seedlings ready for transplant ideally should have:--
a) A root system and root knit sufficient to hold together soil surrounding the roots
b) At least two sets of well-developed true leaves, true to color for the species
c) Cycled through the process of “hardening off,” whereby seedlings have been exposed to outdoor conditions similar to their eventual in-ground growing environment for at least several days, including full exposure to day-night temperature fluctuations to help build carbohydrate reserves, and full exposure to the wind and sun to strengthen cell walls and enhance tolerance to future the extremes in growing conditions
2. Holding: Maintaining seedling quality when transplanting is delayed
a) At times, transplanting may be delayed and it may not be possible to transplant seedlings when they are at their optimal stage of development. This could occur:--
i. When excessive rains prevent cultivating and preparing the soil
ii. When inadequate rain means it is too dry to prepare the soil without degrading soil structure and you must wait for rain or pre-irrigate
iii. In cases of succession planting, when the ground for your new seedlings is still ccupied by a crop that has not yet matured
iv. When you are unable to prioritize new plantings due to other seasonal demands
b) There are several ways to keep your plants in good condition until you are ready to transplant:
i. Know which crops tolerate holding and delays in planting and which do not. For those that do not hold well, prioritize their planting whenever possible:
• Cucurbits, heading brassicas, bulbing onions, and peppers, for example, typically do not respond well to holding
• Leeks, tomatoes, collards, and kale are all crops that can be held well, both responding to holding strategies and rebounding well once transplanted
ii. Provide supplemental fertility to compensate for the nutrients that may no longer be available in your soil mix. As seedlings use up available nutrients, growth will invariably slow—supplemental fertility can address this issue.
iii. Move seedlings into a cooler location or microclimate to slow the rate of growth
iv. Move seedlings into partial shade to reduce photosynthesis and slow growth.
Note that plants may need to be hardened off again if they are held in shade for an extended period in order to prepare them for garden and field conditions.
e) Permanent wilting point (PWP): The point at which soil moisture has been reduced to where the plant cannot absorb it fast enough to grow or stay alive
f) Plant available water (PAW): The water content held in the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point that is available for uptake by plants
Plants can show some water stress and still recover—however, extreme lack of water will cause permanent wilting Signs of water stress include:
a) Graying leaves: A change in leaf color from a vibrant green to a dull gray-green or bluish color
b) Loss of sheen: Plant leaves change from glossy to dull in appearance
c) Insect damage: The presence of cabbage aphids on Brassica family crops (broccoli, cabbage, kohlrabi, etc.) often indicates dry conditions
d) Damage to the root system: Upon closer examination, plants that look dry even after watering often have root damage, e.g., from symphylans, and can’t take up sufficient water
e) Red or purple leaf color: Can indicate dry conditions, saturated conditions (anaerobic), or root damage
f) Development of small spines on the leaf margins or increased spinyness on stems: This condition is especially likely to occur in lettuce and related species such as endive that experience water stress
g) Wilting: Pay attention to the time of the day. If plants wilt early in the cool of the day, this can be a sign that they need water. Some wilting in the mid-day heat (e.g., zucchini, winter squash) is a plant-protective strategy to reduce transpiration losses.
h) Slower than expected growth: This can be detected over time with a practiced eye
Water stress increases crops’ susceptibility to pests and pathogens
Crops repeatedly subjected to water stress will be less resistant to both pest and pathogens
Permanent wilting point--
Permanent wilting point is defined as the point at which soil moisture is too low for the plant to take up water against the pull of gravity. Crop plants reaching permanent wilting point often do not grow well thereafter, are non-productive, or die.
Soils--
a) Sandy soils drain rapidly and do not hold water well
b) Silty soils drain slowly and hold water well
c) Clay soils drain very slowly and hold water tightly
d) Loam soils both drain well and hold water well
e) Agricultural soils improved with organic matter (cover crops, compost) maintain good drainage and moisture retention properties
“Water-loving” crops (e.g., celery) demand less fluctuation in soil moisture levels may require little or no irrigation
Maturation period: Prior to harvest, many crops (e.g., onions and garlic) require a gradual reduction in irrigation to encourage maturation
The specific watering needs of tree fruits are highly variable, and depend on a combination of the tree’s age and size, rootstock, and your soil and climate. In general, deciduous fruit trees need readily available moisture in the root zone through harvest to promote canopy development, extension growth, fruit sizing, and fruit maturation.
This normally means letting the soil dry down to no more than 6–8” deep between irrigations and replacing water based on local ET rates to ensure high fruit quality.
Soil moisture sensors are often used in pairs at different depths, e.g., at 6 and 12 inches deep, to provide the irrigator with information on below-ground moisture dynamics
ZERO BUDGET FARMING IS A FANCY NAME FOR ORGANIC FARMING
ZBF is a set of farming methods that involve zero credit for agriculture and no use of chemical fertilisers. The zero budget farming aims at pulling the farmers out of the debt trap that they found themselves in with the liberalisation of Indian economy. This is also an attempt to make small scale farming a viable vocation.
In many states, farmers are in huge debt due to rising agriculture cost on the account of privatized seeds, farm inputs and inaccessible markets. The high-interest rates for credit or loans that the farmers take from the easiest available lender made farming unviable.
Zero budget farming model promises to cut down farming expenditure drastically and ends dependence on loans. It also reduces dependence on purchased inputs as it encourages use of own seeds and locally available natural fertilizers. Farming is done in sync with the nature not through chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
THERE IS A FOUL CONSPIRACY TO INUNDATE INDIAN FARMERS WITH “DROUGHT RESISTANT GMO SEEDS “.. THIS WILL ENSURE THAT INDIAN FARMERS ARE HOOKED ON TO KOSHER CHEMICAL FARMING..
THE KOSHER DEEP STATE HAS INDUCTED AN ARMY OF FAKE JOURNALISTS TO PUSH GMO DROUGHT RESISISTANT FARMING.. OUR PM MODI IS PLAYING KOSHER BALL. AFTER ALL ROTHSCHILD HAS BRANDED HIM “CHAMPION OF EARTH”
The use of a leguminous cover crop to fix nitrogen in the soil over the wet season for the next season’s crop is an effective fertility management tool.
Nitrogen-fixing cover crops eliminate, reliance on off-farm chemical sources of fertility.
Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include the legume family – Fabaceae..
The Fabaceae commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, are a large and economically important family of flowering plants. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual herbaceous plants, which are easily recognized by their fruit (legume) and their compound, stipulate leaves.
Many legumes have characteristic flowers and fruits. The family is widely distributed, and is the third-largest land plant family in terms of number of species, with about 751 genera and about 19,000 known species
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen in the air is converted into ammonia (NH3) or related nitrogenous compounds. Atmospheric nitrogen is molecular dinitrogen , a relatively nonreactive molecule that is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms. Biological nitrogen fixation converts N2 into ammonia, which is metabolized by most organisms.
Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, are microorganisms capable of transforming atmospheric nitrogen into fixed nitrogen (inorganic compounds usable by plants). More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is effected by these organisms, which thus play an important role in the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by a wide range of microorganisms termed diazotrophs that include bacteria such as Azotobacter, and archaea. A diazotroph is a microorganism that is able to grow without external sources of fixed nitrogen. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with some plant groups, especially legumes.
Looser non-symbiotic relationships between diazotrophs and plants are often referred to as associative, as seen in nitrogen fixation on rice roots. Nitrogen fixation also occurs between some termites and fungi. It also occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning.
All biological nitrogen fixation is effected by enzymes called nitrogenases. Nitrogenase, is an enzyme found in some types of nitrifying microbes that allows for the reduction of nitrogen gas to ammonium. These enzymes contain iron, often with a second metal, usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium.
Nitrogenase is rapidly destroyed by oxygen, in vitro and in vivo, so nitrogen-fixing organisms face the problem of protecting their nitrogenase from inactivation by oxygen. The need to protect nitrogenase becomes particularly important in the cyanobacteria, which evolve oxygen photosynthetically.
The Nitrogenase enzyme complex (the nitrogen. fixing enzyme) is sensitive to O2, that irreversible inactivates the enzyme. Diazotrophs must employ mechanisms which, on the other hand, permit the supply of O2 required for energy regeneration and protect Nase from the deleterious effect of O2.
Nitrogen can be fixed by lightning converting nitrogen and oxygen into NOx (nitrogen oxides). NO may react with water to make nitrous acid or nitric acid, which seeps into the soil, where it makes nitrate, which is of use to growing plants. Nitrogen in the atmosphere is highly stable and nonreactive due to there being a triple bond between atoms in the N2 molecule.
Lightning produces enough energy and heat to break this bond allowing the nitrogen atoms to react with oxygen forming NOx. This itself cannot be used by plants, but as this molecule cools it reacts with more oxygen to form NO2.This molecule in turn reacts with water to produce HNO3 (nitric acid) which is usable by plants.
Again-- Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by enzyme … Nitrogenase is an enzyme responsible for catalyzing nitrogen fixation, which is the reduction of nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) and a process vital to sustaining life on Earth nitrogen is needed for biomass production.
Nitrogen fixation would not occur without a special enzyme called nitrogenase, an enzyme found in some types of nitrifying microbes that allows for the reduction of nitrogen gas to ammonium. Nitrogenase is an enzyme responsible for catalyzing nitrogen fixation, which is the reduction of nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) and a process vital to sustaining life on Earth
Nitrogenases are rapidly degraded by oxygen. For this reason, many bacteria cease production of the enzyme in the presence of oxygen. Many nitrogen-fixing organisms exist only in anaerobic conditions, respiring to draw down oxygen levels, or binding the oxygen with a protein such as leghemoglobin.
Leghaemoglobin is an oxygen carrier and hemoprotein found in the nitrogen-fixing root nodules of leguminous plants. It is produced by legumes in response to the roots being colonized by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, termed rhizobia, as part of the symbiotic interaction between plant and bacterium:
Roots not colonized by Rhizobium do not synthesise leghemoglobin. Leghemoglobin has close chemical and structural similarities to hemoglobin, and, like hemoglobin, is red in colour
Roots not colonized by Rhizobium do not synthesise leghemoglobin. Leghemoglobin has close chemical and structural similarities to hemoglobin, and, like hemoglobin, is red in colour
Cover crops are a cost-saving measure. Synthetic fertilizer costs have steadily increased over the last half-century, causing hardship for Indian farmers where fertilizer prices are already three times the world price.
Organic farmers are less vulnerable to price shifts in fertilizer, but can equally benefit from the reduced need for compost as a result of cover cropping. By saving seeds from their cover crops, farmers can close the loop in their cover crop management, save on annually purchased seed, and develop strains well-adapted to local conditions.
Fertility management systems based on cover crops insulate conventional farmers from increasingly frequent spikes in fertilizer prices and provide organic farmers with a cheap and renewable source of fertility.
Cover crops can provide farmers with the flexibility they need by protecting topsoil from wind and water erosion, storing a reliable supply of nutrients In many ways planting a cover crop is similar to planting a cash crop. Good soil preparation is critical: it provides good soil tilth and drainage and allows for accurate and uniform seed placement.
The time and effort that go into soil preparation prior to cover crop planting are directly related to the quality and uniformity of the cover crop stand and its ability to outcompete weeds, establish a strong, deep root system, and produce optimal biomass.
Factors to consider when preparing ground for cover crop planting include:--
• cropping and tillage history
• soil type
• time of year
• soil moisture content
• type and amount of residue to incorporate
• planting method (broadcast or drill)
• type and seed size of cover crop to be planted (i.e., cereal, legume, mustard)
• method of covering
• extent of soil compaction
• timing in relation to predicted rainfall events
Legume cover crops typically have a higher level of N than is needed for the formation of soil organic matter and it is this excess N (estimated at 50%) that becomes plant available soon after incorporation.
High-quality compost is one of the essential organic matter inputs, along with green manures, used to manage soil health in organic farming and gardening systems.
I have written about composting before—now I will go to greater detail.
a) Composting is a biological, chemical, and physical, highly aerobic process that transforms large, bulky, coarse materials (mostly plants and animal manures) to a homogenous, stable end product that is: uniform, brown/black in color, crumbly in texture (slightly greasy), sweet smelling, and particulate. Finished compost is a source of nutrients for plant growth and a feedstock for soil organisms.
b) The process is biological as it is achieved by organisms. The actual decomposition is via acids and enzymes. The physical aspect involves macro organisms (mostly arthropods) and their chewing, shredding, and mixing actions.
c) Compost can be used in two ways: As a soil builder/conditioner that improves the physical properties of a soil (especially structure and bulk density), and as a fertilizer, with both immediate and long-term effects
B. Benefits of aerobic hot composting ---
1. Advantages of aerobic hot composting process
a) Stabilizes volatile nitrogen. Composted organic matter contains nitrogen in a more stable form (nitrate) that is more usable by plants.
b) Kills most pathogens, e.g., E. coli and Salmonella, and weed seeds (if piles are above 55 deg C for 2 weeks)
c) Introduces a wider population of microbes than found in the raw ingredients
d) Reduces volume of wastes (by approximately 50%)
e) Allows for use of raw materials that shouldn’t be put directly in soil (e.g., sawdust, raw manure)
f) Degrades many contaminants since most pesticides are petroleum- (carbon)-based and thus digestible.
g) Recycles organic matter on farm and reduces off-farm inputs (nutrient cycling)
h) Improves bulk density, a measurement of a weight of a volume of soil including both the solids and the pore space. In general, a lower bulk density number means better soil conditions. Bulk density increases with compaction; soils with a high bulk density can restrict root growth.
2. Benefits of compost in the soil
a) Improves soil structure and soil aggregate stability, resulting in better drainage, aeration, air/gas exchange, erosion resistance, tilth (workablity), and the soil’s ability to recover from compaction. Microbes in compost secrete glue-like compounds that help bind soil particles together.
i. Microbes, particularly bacteria, have a thick, mucilaginous capsule surrounding them that helps attach them to soil particles, and in turn to encourage individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates
ii. Soil microbes live within and between the micropores in soil aggregates, thus binding them into more stable aggregates. Bacteria do this by sticky exudates, fungi by the binding action of their hyphae.
iii. Soil microbes as well as plant roots exude sugar-like polysaccharides (non-sweet sugars) and other compounds that bind individual soil particles together
iv. The thread-like hyphae of fungi secrete a gooey protein called glomalin that also aids in aggregation
v. As organic residues decompose, gels and other viscous microbial byproducts are secreted into the soil and encourage a crumb or granular type of aggregation
b) Increases moisture retention
c) Provides a slow-release source of nutrients and increases availability of minerals. Increases Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and percent base saturation, thus increasing availability of Ca, Mg, and K. Also, humic and fulvic acids in finished compost help dissolve minerals in the soil, making phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and other nutrients available to plants.
d) Increases the population and diversity of microbes in soil that continually make nutrients available to plants. Provides food for microbes.
e) Helps buffer soil pH by neutralizing both acid and alkaline soils and bringing the pH levels to the optimum range for nutrient availability to plants. Compost pH is optimally 6.0–7.0.
f) Compost organisms promote disease suppression by various tactics (competitive interactions):
i. Predation: E.g., fungi predate on detrimental nematodes)
ii. Competition: Outcompete pathogens for niches and resources
iii. Suppression: Produce acids and antibiotics that suppress or kill pathogenic organisms
g) Plays key role in soil fertility management in organic systems ? A wide range of decomposers are naturally present in most soils and on organic matter. Microbial decomposers can account for 70% of total soil metabolism.
Decomposer organisms play different roles in a complex compost food web. Microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and yeasts are mostly primary consumers of compost materials.
Macroscopic organisms such as mold mites, nematodes, springtails, centipedes, beetles, and earthworms feed on the primary and secondary consumers.
2. Key compost organisms
a) Bacteria are primarily responsible for the first stages of decomposition in the composting process
i. Feed on succulent plant materials such as simple sugars, plant saps, proteins and some starches. As their populations can double hourly, the initial rate of decomposition is rapid.
ii. Use primarily enzymes, manufactured from the N-rich material in the pile, to decompose the organic matter.
b) Fungi
i. Also decompose simple sugars, plant saps, proteins, and starches, but their primary role is to decompose the most resistant carbonaceous compounds in the pile, such as chitin, lignin, and cellulose
ii. Improve soil structure by physically binding soil particles into aggregates
iii. Suppress disease
c) Actinomycetes
i. Filamentous bacteria, some of which grow as segmented hyphae (strands) that resemble fungi. Actinomycetes give compost its earthy smell.
ii. Produce long, grayish, thready or cobweb-like growths that are most commonly seen toward the end of the composting process
iii. Can decompose complex carbon, including lignin, chitin and cellulose. Enzymes enable them to break down woody stems, bark, and newspapers.
iv. Responsible for some disease suppression (produce enzymatic compounds and antibiotics)
d) Macroorganisms: Earthworm and other later compost pile immigrants
i. Though not always present in finished compost, macroorganisms feed on the pile’s earlier inhabitants
ii. Examples: Nematodes, mold mites, springtails, wolf spiders, centipedes, sow bugs, earthworms, ground beetles.
3. Compost temperature curve and bacteria
a) 10 deg C to 45 deg : Mesophilic (mid-temperature loving) bacteria and other organisms populate
the pile in the first 24–48 hours, multiplying quickly and causing temperatures to rise
with increased metabolism. As internal pile temperatures rise above 113˚F, mesophilic
organisms start dying out and thermophilic bacteria populations rise.
b) 45 deg to 65 deg C : Thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria, which are present as dormant spores
at lower temperatures, multiply quickly in the heating compost pile. Temperatures can
be sustained at 130˚–150˚F for two weeks or more. Turning the pile can help sustain
high temperatures by reducing density of material and reintroducing oxygen for aerobic
bacteria.
c) 65 deg C and above: May be too hot for thermophilic organisms to survive and biological
activity may slow as a result. Temperatures optimally should remain at 65 deg C or below.
d) 48 deg C and below: After the first month, a compost pile will cool to the point where
mesophilic organisms will populate the pile. Mesophilic bacteria repopulate, but fungi,
actinomycetes, yeasts, and molds dominate this stage of composting.
D. Successful composting requires creating the right environmental conditions for decomposers to function optimally. Key conditions include:
• Carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of materials
• Moisture
• Aeration
• Surface area of compost materials
• Volume of compost pile
• Turning and troubleshooting
E. Compost Materials: Key Considerations
1. Carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio
a) The carbon-to-nitrogen ratio refers to the proportion of carbon to nitrogen by weight in any organic matter. Different types of organic matter have different carbon-to-nitrogen or C:N ratios. For example, wood, which is very high in carbon, has a C:N ratio of 500:1 while grass clippings have a C:N ratio of 17:1.
b) C:N ratio of a material can change due to many factors: Plant growth, storage, how fertilized, what an animal was fed. Numbers on a chart are approximations.
c) The optimum C:N ratio for biological activity is between 25:1 and 30:1. Compost piles should ideally start with an overall C:N ratio in this range. The C:N ratio of finished compost will be 14:1 to 17:1. Much of the carbon in the pile is released as CO2 as decomposers metabolize organic matter.
2. Nitrogenous materials
a) Compost materials with low C:N ratios are often called nitrogenous, sometimes “greens”
b) There is a range of nitrogenous materials as demonstrated on the C:N ratio charts
c) C:N ratio of a material can change: As a growing plant ages it develops more carbon (e.g., young green grass growing into tall brownish-greenish stalks)
d) Storage/treatment: Use greens when fresh. If necessary, make a concentric pile of greens; tarp to preserve N and use as soon as possible.
3. Carbon materials
a) Compost materials with high C:N ratio are called carbonaceous, sometimes “browns”
b) Carbon materials can be more or less complex as shown on C:N chart (e.g., wood chips can have C:N ratio of 400:1, straw 70:1, brown leaves 40:1;
c) High carbon materials can be stored easily to use later (e.g., store brown leaves or straw stubble from fall to mix with the abundance of greens in the spring)
d) Carbon materials can be bulkier and thus can provide aeration in a pile
e) High carbon materials often are dry and can be difficult to properly moisten (can be spread out and soaked or left out in rain)
4. Animal manures
a) Manures are considered nitrogenous, but can have a wide range of C:N ratios depending on type of animal manure, feed source, bedding material, and age.
i. Poultry manure (approximately 6–12:1 C:N ratio) is high in nitrogen as well as phosphorus
ii. Cow manure (approximately 20:1 C:N ratio) mixed with bedding material (straw or woodchips). Bedding absorbs urine well, and half the N is in urine, half in manure.
Manure can vary widely in its overall C:N ratio due to type and quantity of bedding material (e.g., is the “ cow manure” pile mostly dry wood shavings? Think high carbon). Although not particularly high in nutrients (other than K), it is a great “tool” for building soil structure, whereas chicken manure is a more effective fertilizer.
c) In general, manures are more biologically active than plant residues due to having passed through an animal’s digestive system
d) Raw manures can carry weed seeds, pathogens, pesticide residues, and antibiotics, so should be composted properly. If applied directly to the soil, National Organic Program regulations dictate raw (uncomposted) animal manures must be incorporated a minimum of 120 days prior to the harvest of crops “whose edible portion has direct contact with the soil surface or soil particles, (e.g., leafy greens) or 90 days prior to the harvest of crops with no direct soil surface or soil particle contact.“
5. Balancing the carbon and nitrogen in a pile -
a) Consider approximate C:N ratio of each ingredient as a reference in deciding on quantity. Larger compost operations may test the C:N ratio of each ingredient and come up with formulas for quantities.
b) For smaller, hand-built piles, layering is a good way to estimate proportions and “homogenize” the pile. Thin layers are recommended to put the diversity of ingredients in closer proximity. The aim here is to meet all necessary criteria (C:N ratio, water content, oxygen content, particle size) uniformly throughout the pile.
6. Other components some advocate adding to compost
a) Clay soil: Those who use the Luebke method of compost think it’s beneficial to use 10% clay soil in the pile because it reduces N losses, makes end-product more stable. Clay acts as a “colloidal trap,” retaining nitrogen where microbes can convert it from a gaseous form into a useable form. Thin, repetitive layers of clay soil work best.
b) Rock phosphate can increase usable phosphorus by making P more available to crops and help reduce volatilization of NH3
By layering rock phosphate next to animal manures in a compost pile, the result is an increase in Pseudomonas spp. bacteria as well as nitrifying bacteria. These organisms immobilize both P and N in their bodies; when they die and decompose, those nutrients are liberated in a form available for plants to use. Pseudomonas spp. is a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria of the Pseudomonadaceae family. Pseudomonads are mostly aerobic
c) Inoculants (purchased biological “activators”): May be useful for dealing with some problems, e.g., high oil content plant residues, but considered unnecessary by most because compost organisms are present in manures, soils, and on plant materials. Some use aged compost as an inoculant if the composting area is new or on concrete.
d) Wood ash: Using small amounts of wood ash in compost eliminates possible negative effects of high pH of ash when added directly to soil and adds potassium
e) Rock minerals (to help speed their availability through chemical breakdown)
7. What not to compost
a) Though often discouraged, composting manure of humans or other carnivorous or omnivorous animals (dogs, cats, pigs) is possible, but you must be very careful about pathogens . Food safety and organic certification regulations may prohibit the use of these materials in compost;
a) Shredding or chopping materials, especially large, woody stalks, will speed the composting
b) The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of potential decomposition. Decomposers work on surfaces, so the more surface exposed, the more decomposers can work.
c) Compaction can occur if particle size is too small, and material is wet and nitrogenous (e.g., all lawn clippings), leading to loss of aeration and anaerobic conditions
d) Layering sequence and thickness can be adjusted to avoid compaction and maintain aeration; alternate large with small particle sizes
F. Moisture
1. Moisture needs of decomposers
a) All decomposers involved in composting need water
b) Aerobic microbes, similar to marine mammals, need water around them all the time, but also need oxygen to survive. They live and move around on a film of water.
2. Moisture content in compost pile should be 50%–60% (moist as a wrung-out sponge)
a) First consider the moisture of the materials to be composted
b) Add water as pile is built, watering dry layers especially. More water should be put on layers in top half of pile, as much will trickle down (apply approximately two-thirds in top half, one-third in bottom half).
c) Excess moisture will cause compaction, loss of air (you shouldn’t be able to squeeze water out of compost)
d) Insufficient moisture will cause a pile to decompose slowly
e) If you’re going to turn a pile frequently, you can add more water as you turn
f) Turn pile, troubleshoot—add water if too dry, aerate and add dry material if too wet
g) Seasonal moisture considerations: Tarp piles in winter to keep rain off; use compost covers, tarps or straw cap to conserve moisture in summer
G. Aeration
1. Aerobic bacteria, which make hot composting happen, require oxygen and respire carbon ioxide (CO2 )
2. Anaerobic bacteria populate portions of the pile where the oxygen content is low. They create methane gas and sulfur compounds (the rotten eggs smell) and can be harmful to soil life (commercial compost made in anaerobic digesters are often finished aerobically in windrows).
3. Oxygen is often the limiting factor when compost temperature goes down after first weeks
4. CO2 can be monitored with special equipment—at 10–12% CO2 , need to turn the pile if possible
5. Turning the pile reintroduces oxygen, stimulating new growth of aerobic bacteria and further breaking down material, making it easier for microbes to decompose them. You can also break up anaerobic pockets within the pile as you turn it.
H. Volume and Temperature
1. Minimum pile size recommended is 5 feet x 5 feet x 5 feet to achieve the benefits of the hot composting process (although any almost any size can work, smaller piles will not heat up and will take longer to decompose)
2. At this volume the pile is self-insulating and can reach 60 deg C for 2 weeks
3. 55˚– 63˚ C = optimal temperature range. Turn if reaches 65 deg C
4. Maximum height and width should be 6 feet so as not to limit aeration or increase compaction of pile; air does not move more than 3–4 feet into a static pile
5. Compost fabric, straw cap, or soil cap can help retain some heat
I. Maturation and Turning
1. Most windrow piles take about 6 months minimum (spring into fall) to mature if not turned; longer in winter depending on climate. Note that US National Organic Program (NOP) standards requires that windrows be turned five times, and remain at a temperature between 55˚– 76˚ C for 15 days, for use on certified organic farms. Changes to these standards may occur.
2. Advantages of turning include:
a) Speeds composting process by aerating the pile
b) Achieves more thorough composting by moving outer materials to pile center
c) Allows for troubleshooting and adjustments to pile (great learning opportunity)
d) Additional mixing of ingredients
e) Physical (mechanical) breakdown of particle size of materials
3. Disadvantages of turning include:
a) Time, energy, expense
b) Loss of nitrogen as pile is turned
c) Additional space needed unless turning out and back
4. Turn at least once (more speeds process but is labor intensive by hand)
a) If you turn compost only once, ideally do so at 3 weeks or when temperature curve has clearly started back down. After turning at this stage, temperature curve will go up again. At this point oxygen is the limiting factor—turning reintroduces oxygen for aerobic organisms to continue using as they digest the still relatively fresh materials.
b) If you turn the pile twice, ideally turn at about 3 weeks and 6 weeks, again referring to heat curve for information
J. Assessing Compost Maturity and Stability
1. Parent material should be largely indistinguishable, texture should be crumbly
2. Temperature has cooled down to ambient temperature
3. Signs of macro life (e.g., redworms, sowbugs, springtails), though may not be present in large-scale operations
4. Dark brown to blackish-brown color
5. Earthy smell (no ammonia or anaerobic odor)
6. Feels “greasy” or slick when squeezed between fingers
7. Maturity vs. stability: A set of 7 quantitative indicators are used to define the maturity and stability of compost –
• pH: 6.5 to 8.0
• Sulfides: zero to only trace
• Ammonia = <0 .05="" o:p="" ppm="">0>
• Ammonium: 0.2 to 3.0 ppm
• Nitrites: <1 .0="" o:p="" ppm="">1>
• Nitrates: <300 o:p="" ppm="">300>
• CO2 : <1 o:p="">1>
K. Applying Compost--
1. Timing
a) Spring, prior to planting
b) Mid season, as “side dress”: Placed around established plantings and worked into the top 1–4 inches of soil
c) Fall, with a planting of cover crops
2. Application rates
a) Application rates vary with intensiveness of cropping system and use of cover crops
b) Field scale: ~4–10 tons/acre on an annual basis
c) Garden scale: ~ 0.5–2 lbs/square foot (this = 10–20 tons/acre annually). 1–2 lbs/square foot for soil development, 0.5–1 lb/square foot for maintenance.
3. Placement
a) Field-scale: Incorporate into top 8–12 inches of soil
i. Side dress: In the root zone of the crop
b) Garden-scale
i. Initial stages of soil development: Incorporate into top12–24 inches of soil
ii. Soil fertility maintenance: Incorporate into top 4–8 inches via side forking
Advantages of making compost on site
a) Quality control: Can monitor and maintain control, ensure quality end product
b) Effective use of culls, other on-farm waste materials that would otherwise have to be disposed of
c) Compost available when needed; commercial supplies not always available
d) Potential cost savings in making compost on site vs. buying from commercial source
e) Key part of soil health and fertility program; high quality compost helps ensure healthy soil
Recommendations if “buying in” compost from commercial producers
a) Monitor quality; ask for records of inputs and nutrient analysis
b) Visit the composting operation to inspect materials, practices used
c) If certified organic, make sure product is approved by the Organic Materials Review Institute – (OMRI, www.omri.org . In US )
d) Ensure adequate space available for deliveries
Building the Pile
2. Establish the pile base
a) Mark off area for base size (5 feet x 5 feet or longer)
b) Loosen soil in area with a spading fork to enhance aeration and migration of organisms
c) Make first layer with manure or greens (enhance migration of soil organisms to higher N food source)
d) Pile will be most compacted and thus least aerated at bottom. Bulky materials in base can aid in aeration but may make pile harder to turn.
Building layers
As each layer is made:
a) Review key considerations for each material to make appropriate thickness (relative C:N, particle size, moisture, aeration)
b) Make layer uniformly thick
c) Scratch (mix) each layer slightly into the next using spading fork or manure fork
d) Keep pile square by pulling/adding material to corners and edges and tamping walls with fork
e) Use hose sprayer to add water to layers that need it, paying attention to the corners and edges. Some materials (straw, dry manure) should be scratched with forks as watered to allow more even distribution of water.
4. Review key considerations as pile progresses
a) Build a several-layer sequence and review key considerations as you go
b) Assess new considerations as the pile progresses or as materials change (e.g., the weed pile first had fresh green weeds on the top, but now it’s just older, brownish weeds)
c) Assess the pile shape and size as you progress
Finishing a pile
a) 5 feet high = maximum for access/ease of building and for aeration
b) Finish with a carbon layer (if pile is not to be finished that day, end with carbon)
c) Use a tarp or compost cloth as protection from rain and from drying. Compost cloth “breathes”; tarps can limit aeration so some just use for rain.
d) Label pile with date, materials used, other information
Monitoring and Recording the Composting Process
1. Monitor temperature with compost thermometer
a) Take temperature daily for first month and after turning; then weekly
b) Temperature should be taken at several points in the pile and averaged
c) Thermometer should be inserted 18 inches to 2 feet into pile
d) Hold thermometer by probe while inserting and removing
2. Record temperature and observations on record-keeping sheet (see Appendix 5)
a) Track pile through decomposition process, creating heat curve graph as you go
b) Use heat curve graph to assess pile performance, indicate when to turn
Turning a Pile
1. Review the pros and cons of turning
2. Turn at least once (more often speeds process but is labor intensive by hand)
a) If only turning once, ideally do so at 3 weeks or when temperature curve has clearly started back down. At this point oxygen is the limiting factor—turning reintroduces oxygen for aerobic organisms to continue using as they digest the still relatively fresh materials.
b) If turning twice, ideally turn at about 3 weeks and 6 weeks, again referring to heat curve for information (e.g., dip in temperature)
3. Turn outside materials to inside and inside to outside
a) Pull outside materials off pile (outer foot of material will be drier, less decomposed). Set aside.
b) Water outer layer of materials
c) Spread a base layer of inner materials in space next to original pile
d) Mix outer materials into center of new pile as you rebuild with inner materials (don’t try to recreate original layers)
4. Troubleshoot any problems as you turn the pile
a) Break up dry pockets or compacted clumps
b) Water if too dry
c) Leave overly-wet materials spread out to dry.
d) Add nitrogenous materials if pile has not heated up and moisture is fine
e) Low heat piles will still compost with time if you can’t “fix” problem(s)
f) “Failed” piles can be used as material for a new pile
E. Assessing piles and documenting observations
1. Examine piles at different stages of decomposition for:
a) Heat, temperature curve
b) Odor
c) Moisture
d) Recognizable parent materials
e) Different materials or techniques used
f) Examples of good, finished compost
2. Look for trouble signs
a) Too wet (can squeeze water out)
b) Too dry (usually doesn’t heat up properly, may have dry pockets)
c) Anaerobic conditions (smells like sulfur, usually wet and compacted)
d) Didn’t heat up (could be lack of moisture, improper C:N ratio)
3. Recommendations for achieving desired rate of decomposition--
a) Heat, temperature curve examples (record book)
b) Odor, color, texture
c) Moisture
d) Recognizable parent materials
e) Different materials or techniques used
f) Show examples in continuum from coarse to finished
g) Examples of good, finished compost
1) Benefits of aerobic, high temperature composting.
• Stabilizes volatile nitrogen. Composted organic matter contains nitrogen in a more stable form that is more usable by plants.
• Kills most pathogens and weed seeds (if piles are above 55˚ C for 15 days)
• Introduces a wider population of microbes than found in the raw ingredients
• Reduces volume of wastes (by approximately 50%)
• Allows for use of raw materials that shouldn’t be put directly in soil (e.g., sawdust, raw manure)
• Degrades contaminants since most pesticides are petroleum- (carbon-) based and thus igestible. Organic matter also has a high capacity to bind heavy metals.
• Guarantees that most of the end product will be humus and slowly-decomposing material that will become humus in the soil
• Recycles organic matter on the farm and reduces off-farm inputs
Improvements to soil quality that would result from regular incorporation of compost into the soil.--
• Improves soil structure and soil aggregate stability resulting in better drainage, aeration/ gas exchange, erosion resistance, workability (tilth). Microbes secrete glue-like compounds that help bind soil particles together.
• Increases moisture retention( 10 kg of humus can hold 19.5 kg. of water)
• Slow release of nutrients and increased availability of others. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is increased thus increasing availability of Ca, Mg, and K. (Also humic acids help dissolve minerals in the soil, making more minerals available to plants.)
• Increases the population and diversity of microbes in soil that continually make nutrients available to plants. Provides food for microbes.
• Helps buffer soil pH (compost pH is optimally 6.5–8)
• Promotes disease suppression (different microbes suppress Fusarium, Pythium, Phytopthora, Rhizoctonia)
• Plays key role in soil fertility management in organic systems. Along with soil organic matter and cover crops, compost is a major source of plant available N, P, and K.
Recapitulation:--
Key decomposer organisms and their role at the various composting stages/temperatures.---
• Bacteria: Aerobic bacteria are the primary decomposers in the first stages of decomposition, feeding first on the most readily-available food sources like plant sugars. Their role is to do most of the primary consumption of simple carbon compounds, resulting in the liberation of heat and the warming of the compost pile and creating the environmental conditions for the subsequent colonization of microorganisms(below).
• Fungi: Fungi decompose complex carbon compounds like chitin and cellulose
• Actinomycetes: Actinomycetes decompose complex carbon, like chitin and cellulose
• Macroorganisms: Earthworms and other later immigrants such as nematodes, mold mites, springtails, wolf spiders, centipedes, sow bugs, earthworms, ground beetles continue to break down organic matter after the pile has cooled
4) What temperature range is considered best for composting and why? What is too hot?--
• Between 55°– 65° C for a minimum of 15–21 days. This should kill potential pathogenic organisms and weed seeds and prevent the volatilization of nitrogen containing compounds (e.g., ammonia) at higher temperatures.
• Maximum temperatures of the compost pile should not exceed 65° C
5) List the key conditions necessary for aerobic, high temperature composting.
• Proper carbon to nitrogen ratio of materials: 25:1–40:1
• Moisture: 50%–60% by weight or “moist as a wrung-out sponge”
• Aeration: Periodic re-aeration through turning
• Surface area of compost materials: Small particle size will result in more rapid decomposition
• Volume of compost pile: A minimum of 5x 5x 5 is recommended
• Turning and troubleshooting: Compost piles should be turned when temperatures exceed 65° C and when the temperature of the pile has began to decline. U National organic standards require 5 turnings within a 15- day period with a sustained temperature of 55°– 77° C.
The ideal C:N range for composting --
• C:N ratio affects the rate of decomposition. A low C:N ratio (below 25:1) may result in too rapid decomposition and the loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia. A C:N ratio that is too high may result in a too long a decomposition process and a low quality end product.
• Ideal C:N ratio range is 25:1–40:1
Factors which influence the C:N ratio of a material--
• C:N ratio of a material can change due to many factors: plant growth, storage, how fertilized, and what an animal was fed
What may happen when a pile is too wet or too dry?
• If a compost pile is too wet it may not heat up, turn anaerobic, forming compounds that may be offensive smelling and detrimental to plant growth if not aerated prior to application
• If a compost pile is too dry it may not heat up or not sustain heat long enough to degrade the organic materials into a finished and useable product. Will often require reassembling the materials and moistening.
9) Why is aeration important in a pile?
• To assure adequate amounts of oxygen for aerobic decomposition
What are some advantages and disadvantages to turning a compost pile---
When and how often should piles be turned?
• Compost piles should be turned when temperatures exceed 65° or when the temperature of the pile has peaked, plateaued, and begun to decline. US National organic standards require 5 turnings within a 15-day period with a sustained temperature of 131°–170°F. The greater the number of turnings, the faster the material will break down.
Qualitative indicators of compost maturity.---
• “Parent material” should be largely indistinguishable
• Texture should be crumbly
• Very small particle size
• Temperature has cooled down to ambient temperature
• Signs of macro life (e.g., redworms, sowbugs, springtails)
• Dark brown to blackish-brown in color
• Earthy smell (no ammonium or anaerobic odor)
• Feels “greasy” or slick when squeezed between fingers
What are some quantitative ways of assessing compost maturity and stability?—
• Compost maturity and stability may also be determined through measurements of carbon dioxide and ammonium levels.
This is commonly done in large-scale and commercial composting operations.
Compost, the process and the product, is an example of harnessing biology to assist in promoting healthy soil that in turn grows quality crops. Composting is about the decomposition and transformation of heterogeneous organic wastes (anything that was once alive) into a homogeneous, stable end product—organic matter/humus, that is, compost. Quality compost is a uniform product black in color, crumbly in texture, sweet smelling, slightly greasy to the touch, and a powerful reservoir of plant nutrients that are released slowly over time via further biological activity.
Benefits---
Among the attributes of compost are –
• Immobilizes nutrients in the bodies of microorganisms. This keeps nutrients, especially nitrogen, from leaching out of the pile. When the finished compost is applied to the soil, nutrients are released slowly and in forms available to plants.
• Increases soil organic matter and cation exchange capacity.
• Provides a feedstock of nutrients as well as the “habitat” for beneficial soil microbes.
• Kills (some, not all) plant pathogens and weed seeds during the composting process.
• Inoculates the soil with beneficial microbes (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, etc.).
• Improves soil structure by promoting soil aggregation (binding soil particles together), which in turns promotes aeration, moisture retention, permeability, and consistency, thus improving the “workability” of a soil.
• Usually panacea-like in solving whatever problem your soil has., you could refer to a compost pile as a “microbial layer cake.” The decomposition is carried out by succeeding waves (populations) of micro- and macro-organisms.
Composting is a form of animal husbandry or “microbe farming.”
As with any successful husbandry effort, habitat, diet, and water are the key building blocks of a successful compost pile. A compost pile is simply “pasture” for microbes. Via its ingredients, the pile provides a feedstock for the initial microbial populations and eventually the “finishers” or “shredders and chewers,” macro-organisms such as earthworms, mites, sow bugs, centipedes, millipedes, etc.
Microbial populations tend to be ubiquitous, thus there is no need for inoculants, as small populations exist on much of the substrate used in composting.
The composting process has three distinct phases:
1: Mesophilic (50º–113ºF) – Moderate temperatures, usually lasting under a week
2: Thermophilic* (113º–150ºF) – High temperatures, usually lasting 3–4 weeks
3: Curing – Ambient temperatures, lasting >3 months *small piles, made incrementally, will not get very hot
During the first phase, waves of bacteria and fungi multiply rapidly and feed on the succulent plants in the pile. When the pile is properly constructed, the first 24–48 hours feature an explosive, literally exponential growth of these organisms (bacteria can double their populations every 20–60 minutes).
Often, there is no recognizable plant material in the pile after even a few days thanks to the chemical decomposition taking place. Remember, bacteria and fungi do not have mouthparts, and thus do not chew; rather, they secrete enzymes and acids that break down plant materials, and absorb the sugars and simple proteins for nutrition.
The next phase of decomposition features thermophilic, or heat-loving, organisms—still some bacteria, but increasingly, fungi. Fungi decompose (again, chemically) more complex carbon compounds such as chitin, cellulose, and lignin.
As the pile cools and begins its curing process, a third microbial population comes to the fore—a type of actinobacteria often referred to as actinomycetes. These have the simple cell structure of bacteria, but grow multicellular, hyphae-like filaments resembling fungi. Their enzymatic role is to degrade tough, resistant-to-rot woody stems and bark. Their gray-white filaments look “cobwebby” and have a pleasant, earthy smell. They can rot a redwood stake in the ground in 9–15 months.
When a pile has cooled and cured for 1–3 months, macroorganisms move in to finish the job.
These organisms—mites, springtails, centipedes, millipedes, sowbugs, ants, nematodes, earthworms, etc.—are physical (as compared to chemical) decomposers. They use their mouthparts to chew, shred, and further break apart resistant materials, as well as feed on dead bacteria and fungi. In doing so, they also create a softer, more “open” substrate that can be re-colonized by bacteria and fungi, which break the materials down further.
What are the criteria for successful husbandry of a compost pile?--
1. Pile Size and Dimensions
Conventional wisdom now states a minimum size of 5’ x 5’ x 5’ is required for successful composting. But those working in small spaces shouldn’t despair— ideal dimensions are about (maximum) volume to (minimum) surface area ratios. That is, a big pile has more internal mass and thus a more hospitable decomposition environment for the microbes involved. The bigger pile also features less surface area, as the ambient environment largely degrades the pile’s surface.
Some tips on pile dimensions:
• Oxygen does not move passively more than 3–4’ into a pile, so width should not exceed 6–8’.
• It is impractical (i.e., too much heavy lifting) to uild a pile more than 4’–5’ in height.
• Length is simply a function of the volume of material on hand.
• A cube-shaped pile is better than a pyramid or tapered haystack
Particle Size of Ingredients--
The principle is the smaller the particle size (via chopping and shredding) the greater the surface area, the more the microbes can “occupy space” and thus the faster the rate of decomposition. Chopping plant material also breaks apart the rigid, often waxy outer cuticle of plants, making the succulent “innards” more accessible to the enzymatic and acidic secretions of bacteria and fungi, thus speeding and contributing to more thorough decomposition.
Aeration-
As oxygen fuels the metabolism of the decomposers in a pile, the pile construction should feature adequate pore/air space. This is readily achieved by layering together an admixture of course materials and fine-chopped materials.
Once the process is underway (1–3 weeks) a pile will settle, losing 30–50% of its volume as the materials are physically broken down. At that juncture there is usually a sharp drop in temperature. As the pile settles, reducing pore/air space, and as microbial populations exhaust the oxygen supply, oxygen becomes a limiting factor. This is an opportune time to turn and re-aerate a pile. There is often a spike in temperature associated with turning: as oxygen is resupplied, microbial populations boom—the heat generated is a byproduct of their metabolism as they continue to break down materials in the pile.
Moisture--
Compost pile ingredients should be about 40–60% moisture by weight. This equates to the consistency of a wrung-out sponge. It is best to apply water (sprinkle-spray, not drench) incrementally to each layer as you construct a pile.
The moisture is for the microbes, but it also softens the pile ingredients. A note: as water will trickle down from top to bottom, apply less water to the lower layers of the pile.
Also, as plants are merely supported columns of water (60–90% by weight), more water will be released into the pile as decomposition progresses. Thus, be conservative with the initial water application.
Carbon to Nitrogen Ration (C:N)--
The ideal C:N ratio at the outset is suggested as 30–40:1. This means the pile has 30–40 times more carbon-rich than nitrogen-rich material by weight.
While all materials contain some carbon, carbonaceous materials (think “browns”: straw, leaves, wood chips, etc.) contain primarily carbon, and similarly, nitrogenous materials (think “greens”: fresh, lush plant material and animal manures)
Supplement 1: Making Quality Compost on a Garden Scale feature a high nitrogen content relative to carbon.
What is important vis a vis C:N ratio is that this is the ideal proportion to fuel the diet of the pile’s microbial decomposers. In essence, they use carbon to nitrogen in a 30–40:1 ratio.
Microbes use the carbon-rich ingredients as building blocks for cellulose and, as we do, for carbohydrates that fuel their work. They use the nitrogen to build proteins, amino acids, and enzymes that are necessary for cell growth, function, and reproduction.
Enzymes are also key to the decomposition process; they act as biological catalysts, accelerating biochemical reactions and hastening the breakdown of organic matter. It is interesting to note that the enzymes produced by bacteria and fungi persist and function long after the producing organisms have died. In fact these same enzymes contribute to the breakdown of the “microbial corpses” that produced them.
You can achieve the desired 30–40:1 C:N ration by combining comparative volumes of carbon-rich (brown) and nitrogenrich (green) ingredients in layers.
A wide range of comparative volumes will work, from 50% carbon-based materials combined with 50% nitrogen-based materials, to as much as 80% nitrogen-based materials and 20% carbon-based materials. The pile higher in nitrogen will heat up more quickly, get hotter ( 55 to 65 º C), stay hot longer, break down faster, and ill more weed seeds and plant pathogens.
In creating the “microbial layer cake,” thin, repeated layers work best. Your finished compost can be used both to fertilize plants and to improve soil structure.
Compost and soil organisms metabolize carbonaceous materials to get carbon for building essential organic compounds and to obtain energy. However, no organism can grow, function and reproduce on carbon alone. They also need a sufficient amount of nitrogen to make nitrogen-containing cellular compounds such as—
Soil microbes need to incorporate into their cells (on average) about 10 parts of carbon for every 1 part of nitrogen. Because only about 1/3 of the carbon ingested is actually incorporated into cells (the remaining 2/3 is respired and lost as CO2 ), microbes need 30 parts carbon to part nitrogen in their “feedstock,” or a 30:1 C:N ratio.
A compost pile made with ingredients at a 30:1 C:N ratio provides microbes with a balanced diet that in turn enables them to thrive and reproduce and to decompose and digest the coarse material of a compost pile efficiently at the outset, and transform it into the fine, granular, soil-like product we call finished compost.
Grass clippings and other green vegetation tend to have a higher proportion of nitrogen (and therefore a lower C/N ratio) than brown vegetation such as dried leaves or wood chips. If your compost mix is too low in nitrogen, it will not heat up. If the nitrogen proportion is too high, the compost may become too hot, killing the compost microorganisms, or it may go anaerobic, resulting in a foul-smelling mess.
The usual recommended range for C/N ratios at the start of the composting process is about 30/1, but this ideal may vary depending on the bioavailability of the carbon and nitrogen. As carbon gets converted to CO2 (and assuming minimal nitrogen losses) the C/N ratio decreases during the composting process, with the ratio of finished compost typically close to 10/1.
Amino acids and enzymes, are used to decompose organic matter—especially carbonaceous materials
The thermophyllic (high temperature) stage is critical to the production of a safe, high-quality product. A properly built pile should heat to 55º– 65º C for a minimum of 15 days, which requires turning the pile to reheat it by reintroducing air and water when it cools (note that National Organic Program regulations require the pile to be turned at least 5 times in a 15-day period).
Turning reduces the temperature from above 65º C. In addition, if the temperature gets too high, clay soil can be added as a buffer. When finished, temperature in the pile drops to 80ºF, CO2 level decreases, and pH drops below 8.
Why is compost pH worth measuring? Primarily because you can use it to follow the process of decomposition. Compost microorganisms operate best under neutral to acidic conditions, with pH's in the range of 5.5 to 8. During the initial stages of decomposition, organic acids are formed. The acidic conditions are favorable for growth of fungi and breakdown of lignin and cellulose. As composting proceeds, the organic acids become neutralized, and mature compost generally has a pH between 6 and 8.
To start with the pH of compost depends very much on the materials you put into the compost. If you use wood products like saw dust they will make the finished compost more acidic. If you use more manure or add in some ashes from the fireplace it will be more alkaline. So the pH of any particular compost depends on the material being composted.
As the compost is being made it goes through pH swings. In the initial stages, organic acids are formed and these make the compost pile more acidic—the pH drops. In these acidic conditions fungi grow better than bacteria and they take over the pile and start to decompose the lignin and cellulose in plants.
As this process continues the pH rises and bacteria become more populous. What this means is that the pH of your finished compost also depends on when you consider it to be finished. If you rush things, it might still be more acidic. If you wait longer, it will be more alkaline.
If anaerobic conditions develop during composting, organic acids may accumulate rather than break down. Aerating or mixing the system should reduce this acidity. Adding lime (calcium carbonate) generally is not recommended because it causes ammonium nitrogen to be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas. Not only does this cause odors, it also depletes nitrogen that is better kept in the compost for future use by plants.
At any point during composting, you can measure the pH of the mixture. In doing this, keep in mind that your compost is unlikely to be homogeneous. You may have found that the temperature varied from location to location within your compost, and the pH is likely to vary as well. You therefore should plan to take samples from a variety of spots.
You can mix these together and do a combined pH test, or test each of the samples individually. In either case, make sure to make several replicate tests and to report all of your answers. (Since pH is measured on a logarithmic scale, it doesn't make sense mathematically to take a simple average of your replicates.)
pH can be measured using any of the following methods. Whichever method you choose, make sure to measure the pH as soon as possible after sampling so that continuing chemical changes will not affect your results:
Soil Test Kit
Test kits for analysis of soil pH can be used without modification for compost samples. Simply follow the manufacturer's instructions.
pH Paper
If your compost is moist but not muddy, you can insert a pH indicator strip into the compost, let it sit for a few minutes to soak up water, then read the pH using color comparison.
Compost Extractions
Using a calibrated meter or pH paper, you can measure pH in a compost extract made by mixing compost with distilled water. It is important to be consistent in the ratio of compost to water and to account for the initial moisture content of the compost, but there is no universally accepted protocol specifying these procedures.
One approach is to read the pH in oven-dried samples that have been reconstituted with distilled water.
Spread compost in a thin layer in a pan, and dry for 24 hours in a 105-110°C oven.
Weigh or measure 5 g samples of oved-dried compost into small containers.
Add 25 ml distilled water to each sample.
Mix thoroughly for 5 seconds then let stand for 10 minutes.
Read the pH with a calibrated meter or with pH paper and record as compost pH in water, or pHw.
Acidic heaps are most common if aeration fails, maintaining good aeration will neutralise pH levels as more air/oxygen is fed into the waste.
Alkaline heaps are most common when fire ash is added or excess nitrogen/ammonium is present.
Viruses straddle the line between biotic and abiotic. Viruses replicate and evolve at an extraordinary rate but they cannot make their own proteins, have no nutritional requirements, and most are composed of only nucleic acids and protein.
Viruses are remnants of the earliest forms of “life.” Viruses may lead to evolutionary changes in their hosts through transfer of genetic materials. Viruses hop in and out of different hosts and may occasionally bring along bits of host DNA with them and transfer it to a new host; they are the original genetic engineers.
Bacteria and fungi do not ingest their host, but use absorptive nutrition (enzymatic degradation outside the pathogen). Nematodes use alimentary nutrition (enzymatic- and bacterial-mediated degradation inside the pathogen). Viruses are obligate intracellular molecular parasites: They do not acquire nutrition from their host, rather they use the host’s molecular machinery to make new viruses.
WHEN YOU DO CROP STUBBLE BURNING , WEEDS AND WEED SEEDS ARE ELIMINATED ALONG WITH PESTS , IN ADDITION TO CREATING PRICELESS BIOCHAR ..
THIS IS THE CHEAPEST AND MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD.. THERE ARE MANY VARIETIES RESISTANT TO HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDE. IF DELHI GETS SMOG, SHIFT THE CAPITAL ..
WHEN YOU FLOOD RICE FIELDS WEEDS ARE ELIMINATED ALONG WITH PESTS.
BURNING CROP RESIDUES CAN REDUCE THE SURFACE SEED BANKS OF MANY WEEDS. ALL CROP RESIDUES CAN PRODUCE A SUFFICIENTLY HEATED BURN TO KILL WEED SEEDS. A NARROW WINDROW WILL BURN AT A HIGHER TEMPERATURE AND IMPROVE WEED SEED KILL..
BURNING RESIDUES MAKES IT EASIER TO SOW THE SUBSEQUENT CROP, IMPROVES DISEASE AND PEST MANAGEMENT AND ELIMINATES SHORT-TERM NITROGEN TIE-UP.
BIOCHAR IS HIGHLY POROUS AT THE MICROSCOPIC LEVEL DUE TO ITS BEING MADE AT RELATIVELY LOWER TEMPERATURES AND HAS THE UNIQUE ABILITY TO READILY ABSORB MOISTURE AND CERTAIN NUTRIENTS.
FROM A SOIL PERSPECTIVE, BIOCHAR CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS A MICROBIAL CONDOMINIUM. AFTER IT IS INITIALLY MADE, BIOCHAR UNDERGOES A MATURATION PERIOD DURING WHICH IT ABSORBS NITROGEN (UNTIL SATURATION POINT) FROM THE ENVIRONMENT, USUALLY FROM COW URINE, COMPOSTING ETC
AFTER THIS PERIOD, THE BIOCHAR BECOMES A STABLE ENVIRONMENT FOR BACTERIA AND FUNGI TO TAKE UP RESIDENCE.
IN POOR AND LEACHED SOILS, MICROBIAL ACTIVITY IS OFTEN VERY LOW, ESPECIALLY DURING THE DRY SEASON; THE ADDITION OF BIOCHAR TO THESE SOILS MEANS THAT THE SOIL MICROBES NOW HAVE A STABLE AND MOIST PLACE TO RESIDE AND PROSPER, EVEN DURING THE DRY SEASON.
AS A RESULT, THE NEED FOR ADDITIONAL FERTILIZER SHOULD DECREASE OVER TIME, AS THESE NOW-RESIDENT MICROBES ARE ABLE TO BREAK DOWN ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SOIL, AND EVEN BECOME FOOD THEMSELVES FOR LARGER SOIL ORGANISMS, SUCH AS EARTHWORMS.
FURTHERMORE, NUTRIENTS STORED IN THE PORES ARE SLOW-RELEASED THROUGHOUT THE YEAR AS MORE AND MORE MICROORGANISMS TAKE UP RESIDENCE.
BALLS TO CLIMATE CHANGE DUE TO INDIA BURNING CROP STUBBLE.. USA MUST STOP DROPPING “GOOD” BOMBS
BIOCHAR IS ONE OF THE LEADING MEANS FOR TAKING CO2 OUT OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND BINDING IT UP INTO SOILS AS A STABLE FORM OF CARBON. BIOCHAR WILL REMAIN IN THE SOIL FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS.
35% OF THE CARBON IN PLANT BIOMASS CAN BE PERMANENTLY CAPTURED AS BIOCHAR DURING THE PYROLYSIS PROCESS, PUTTING IT WAY AHEAD OF MANY OTHER LEADING TECHNOLOGIES THAT ARE AIMED SOLELY AT CARBON CAPTURE
FIELD TRIALS INVOLVING BIOCHAR HAVE SHOWN CROP YIELDS TO INCREASE SIGNIFICANTLY..
THE PH OF ACIDIC SOIL CAN BE INCREASED / OPTIMIZED THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF BIOCHAR.
THE MICRO-POROUS STRUCTURE PROVIDES A HABITAT FOR THE PROLIFERATION OF BENEFICIAL SOIL BIOTA.
THE MICRO-POROUS STRUCTURE OF BIOCHAR BENEFITS WATER RETENTION IN THE SOIL.
THE SURFACE AREA OF BIOCHAR HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED TO BE ANYWHERE FROM 10 TO 300 M2/G (ACTIVATED CHARCOAL HAS A SURFACE AREA OF UP TO 2,000 M2/G!), MOST OF WHICH IS FOUND INTERNALLY AND PROVIDES AMPLE AREA FOR MICROBIAL HABITAT.
THE LARGE SURFACE AREA OF BIOCHAR CAN ATTRACT AND HOLD ALL MINERAL IONS - NOT ONLY CATIONS (+) SUCH AS AMMONIUM, CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM AND POTASSIUM, BUT ALSO ANIONS (-) SUCH AS NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, SULFUR, AND BORON.
BY ATTRACTING AND HOLDING BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUTRIENT IONS IN THE SOIL, BIOCHAR CAN REDUCE BOTH LEACHING (INTO GROUNDWATER) AND OUT-GASSING (INTO THE ATMOSPHERE). THESE LOOSELY-HELD NUTRIENTS ARE BIO-AVAILABLE TO MICROBES AND PLANT ROOTS IN THE COMPLEX ROOT ZONE.
BIOCHAR CAN IMPROVE SOIL TEXTURE AND WORKABILITY, PARTICULARLY HEAVY CLAY SOILS, ALTHOUGH IT HAS SHOWN GREAT PROMISE IN ALL SOIL TYPES.
PLANTS GROWN IN BIOCHAR AS A GROWTH MEDIUM (AT CONCENTRATIONS AS LOW AS 1 TO 5% OF THE TOTAL SOIL MIXTURE) TEND TO HAVE A HIGHER RESISTANCE TO PESTS AND DISEASES
BIOCHAR'S NATURAL AFFINITY FOR NITROGEN ALLOWS IT TO ARREST THE FLOW OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE. IT TENDS TO ONLY RELEASE AS MUCH NITROGEN INTO THE SURROUNDING SOIL AS IS NEEDED BY MICROBES AND PLANTS TO MAINTAIN HEALTHY GROWTH
COVERING FIELDS WITH EXTRACTED CROP STUBBLE ( A POOR ALTERNTIVE ) AS A MULCH MUCH GIVES A HOME TO PESTS, SCORPIONS, RATS AND SNAKES .. THE SOIL GETS DEGRADED ..
ATTENTION MR NARENDRA DAMODARDAs MODI---
WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA ARE PUTTING YOU ON NOTICE..
YOU HAVE STUDIOUSLY IGNORED DOZENS OF WARNINGS FROM CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL OVER INDIAs IMPENDING GROUND WATER CRISIS EVERY YEAR , OVER THE PAST 5 YEARS ..
NOW, WE HAVE FIGURED OUT WHY ..
ISRAELs ECONOMY IS PLUNGING.. THEY CANT SURVIVE BY SELLING THEIR INFERIOR AND OVERPRICED KOSHER MILITARY HARDWARE ANYMORE.
SO ISRAEL DARLING MODI ( WHO WORE A KOSHER SPONSORED TURBAN IN 1976 -- INHEIN HATAAYIYE HAMEIN LEH AAIYIYE ) NOW WANTS TO CREATE A HEGELIAN DIALECTIC AND ALLOW ISRAEL TO PUT THE WATER HOOKS ON BHARATMATA ..
AFTER ALL ISRAEL GOT THOUSANDS OF MIGHTY RIVERS AND ARE DEADLY WATER EXPERTS , RIGHT?
NOW MODI HAS GONE INTO " ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING" NAY ZBNF OF AN IDIOT NAMED SUBHASH PALEKAR..
LET ME QUOTE WIKIPEDIA--
QUOTE: His Spiritual background was inspired by Saint Dhnyaneshwar, Saint Tukaram and Saint Kabir. Searching for truth, he studied Gandhi and Karl Marx comparatively. Gandhiji's philosophy of non-violence appealed to him more. Great Indian personalities like Gandhiji, Shivaji, Jyotiba Phule, Vivekananda and Tagore helped reinforce his belief in absolute natural truth and nonviolence (Satya & Ahimsa) UNQUOTE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhash_Palekar
WE ASK MODI -- WHY DID JNU WOMAN NIRMALA SITARAMAN HAVE TO ANNOUNCE ZBNF IN HER ANNUAL BUDGET ?
AFTER ALL JU WOMAN NIRMALA SITARAMAN FOOLED THE WHOLE OF INDIA BY ANNOUNCING A STEEP PETROL/ DIESEL COST HIKE.. A HIDDEN "CARBON TAX" LIKE WHAT MODIs SOUL MATE "CHAMPION OF EARTH" -- CHILDLESS ANAL SEX RECEIVING JEW MACRON DID IN FRANCE --
TILL TODAY NO ROTHSCHILD MEDIA HAS REVEALED THAT "YELLOW VEST PROTESTS " IN FRANCE ARE ABOUT "CARBON TAXES "... SO THAT JEWS CAN MAKE MONEY OUT OF THIN AIR..
NOW USING THIS STUPID FELLOW SUBHASH PALEKARs ZBNF , MODI WILL LEAD THE NATION INTO SEVERE FAMINE IN 5 YEARS FLAT..
I CAN PUT A 1000 ITEM OBJECTIVE TEST TO SUBHASH PALEKAR ON "ORGANIC FARMING" AND IF HE SCORES MORE THAN 2 % I WILL EAT MY OWN HEAD..
TODAY WE WONDER IF WE HAVE MADE A MISTAKE IN CHOOSING YOU AS INDIAs PM THE SECOND TIME -- NARENDRA DAMDARDAS MODI..
WE ASK MODI TO SHED HIS EGO AND WORK FOR BHARATMATA AND NOT FOR HIS JEWISH MASTERS ..
THIS FELLOW GUJJU NO 2 WAS SINGING THE PRAISES OF HIS "GREEN COLOURED NEEM COATED UREA PRILLS" TILL A COUPLE OF WEEKS AGO.. HE USED TO FROTH FROM THE CORNERS OF HIS MOUTH WHILE HE NARRATED HIS NEEM COATED UREA EXPLOITS..
OVERUSE OF UREA IS THE REASON WHY 70 % OF OUR WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA ARE DEAD TODAY IN JUST 5 YEARS FLAT .. YES -- 5 YEARS OF MODIs RULE..
OUR THINK TANKS ARE FILLED WITH IDIOTS WHO CANT THINK FOR NUTS.. AMITABH KANT , EX-COLLECTOR OF CALICUT, WE HOPE YOU ARE LISTENING.. ( HIS CHILD WAS BORN IN CALICIUT ).. STOP YOUR CHAMCHAGIRI OF MODI-- DO YOU JOB !
MY 6 PART POST ON ORGANIC FARMING BELOW IS ONLY 60% COMPLETE. YES , SUBHASH PALEKAR CAN READ IT , AND THEN I WILL PUT HIM THROUGH A 1000 ITEM OBJECTIVE TEST.. THERE IS MORE TO ORGANIC FARMING THAN A 1000 SUBHASH PALEKARs CAN EVER LEARN OR COMPREHEND ..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
WE WATCH..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA ARE PUTTING YOU ON NOTICE..
YOU HAVE STUDIOUSLY IGNORED DOZENS OF WARNINGS FROM CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL OVER INDIAs IMPENDING GROUND WATER CRISIS EVERY YEAR , OVER THE PAST 5 YEARS ..
NOW, WE HAVE FIGURED OUT WHY ..
ISRAELs ECONOMY IS PLUNGING.. THEY CANT SURVIVE BY SELLING THEIR INFERIOR AND OVERPRICED KOSHER MILITARY HARDWARE ANYMORE.
SO ISRAEL DARLING MODI ( WHO WORE A KOSHER SPONSORED TURBAN IN 1976 -- INHEIN HATAAYIYE HAMEIN LEH AAIYIYE ) NOW WANTS TO CREATE A HEGELIAN DIALECTIC AND ALLOW ISRAEL TO PUT THE WATER HOOKS ON BHARATMATA ..
AFTER ALL ISRAEL GOT THOUSANDS OF MIGHTY RIVERS AND ARE DEADLY WATER EXPERTS , RIGHT?
NOW MODI HAS GONE INTO " ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING" NAY ZBNF OF AN IDIOT NAMED SUBHASH PALEKAR..
LET ME QUOTE WIKIPEDIA--
QUOTE: His Spiritual background was inspired by Saint Dhnyaneshwar, Saint Tukaram and Saint Kabir. Searching for truth, he studied Gandhi and Karl Marx comparatively. Gandhiji's philosophy of non-violence appealed to him more. Great Indian personalities like Gandhiji, Shivaji, Jyotiba Phule, Vivekananda and Tagore helped reinforce his belief in absolute natural truth and nonviolence (Satya & Ahimsa) UNQUOTE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhash_Palekar
WE ASK MODI -- WHY DID JNU WOMAN NIRMALA SITARAMAN HAVE TO ANNOUNCE ZBNF IN HER ANNUAL BUDGET ?
AFTER ALL JU WOMAN NIRMALA SITARAMAN FOOLED THE WHOLE OF INDIA BY ANNOUNCING A STEEP PETROL/ DIESEL COST HIKE.. A HIDDEN "CARBON TAX" LIKE WHAT MODIs SOUL MATE "CHAMPION OF EARTH" -- CHILDLESS ANAL SEX RECEIVING JEW MACRON DID IN FRANCE --
TILL TODAY NO ROTHSCHILD MEDIA HAS REVEALED THAT "YELLOW VEST PROTESTS " IN FRANCE ARE ABOUT "CARBON TAXES "... SO THAT JEWS CAN MAKE MONEY OUT OF THIN AIR..
NOW USING THIS STUPID FELLOW SUBHASH PALEKARs ZBNF , MODI WILL LEAD THE NATION INTO SEVERE FAMINE IN 5 YEARS FLAT..
I CAN PUT A 1000 ITEM OBJECTIVE TEST TO SUBHASH PALEKAR ON "ORGANIC FARMING" AND IF HE SCORES MORE THAN 2 % I WILL EAT MY OWN HEAD..
TODAY WE WONDER IF WE HAVE MADE A MISTAKE IN CHOOSING YOU AS INDIAs PM THE SECOND TIME -- NARENDRA DAMDARDAS MODI..
WE ASK MODI TO SHED HIS EGO AND WORK FOR BHARATMATA AND NOT FOR HIS JEWISH MASTERS ..
THIS FELLOW GUJJU NO 2 WAS SINGING THE PRAISES OF HIS "GREEN COLOURED NEEM COATED UREA PRILLS" TILL A COUPLE OF WEEKS AGO.. HE USED TO FROTH FROM THE CORNERS OF HIS MOUTH WHILE HE NARRATED HIS NEEM COATED UREA EXPLOITS..
OVERUSE OF UREA IS THE REASON WHY 70 % OF OUR WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA ARE DEAD TODAY IN JUST 5 YEARS FLAT .. YES -- 5 YEARS OF MODIs RULE..
OUR THINK TANKS ARE FILLED WITH IDIOTS WHO CANT THINK FOR NUTS.. AMITABH KANT , EX-COLLECTOR OF CALICUT, WE HOPE YOU ARE LISTENING.. ( HIS CHILD WAS BORN IN CALICIUT ).. STOP YOUR CHAMCHAGIRI OF MODI-- DO YOU JOB !
MY 6 PART POST ON ORGANIC FARMING BELOW IS ONLY 60% COMPLETE. YES , SUBHASH PALEKAR CAN READ IT , AND THEN I WILL PUT HIM THROUGH A 1000 ITEM OBJECTIVE TEST.. THERE IS MORE TO ORGANIC FARMING THAN A 1000 SUBHASH PALEKARs CAN EVER LEARN OR COMPREHEND ..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
WE WATCH..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
PUT ABOVE CRITICAL COMMENT IN WEBSITES OF--
SUBHASH PALEKAR
NIRMALA SITARAMAN
FINANCE MINISTRY
MADHAV GADGIL
K KASTURIRANGAN
MS SWAMINATHAN
PMO
PM MODI
NITI AYOG
AMITABH KANT
NGT
ENVIRONMENT MINISTRY/ MINISTER
FOOD MINISTER/ MINISTRY
WATER MINISTER/ MINISTRY
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMS)
AJIT DOVAL
CBI
RAW
IB
ED
NIA
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
PRESIDENT OF INDIA
VP OF INDIA
ALL CENTRAL/ STATE MINISTRIES/ MINISTERS..
ALL MAJOR DISTRICT COLLECTORS / PROMINENT IAS OFFICERS .
CMs OF ALL STATES
GOVERNORS OF ALL STTES
CJI
ATTORNEY GENERAL
ALL SUPREME COURT JUDGES
ALL HIGH COURT CHIEF JUSTICES
DGPs OF ALL STATES
IGs OF ALL STATES
DEFENCE MINISTER/ MINISTRY
ALL 3 ARMED FORCE CHIEFS
AMIT SHAH
HOME MINISTRY
NCERT
EDUCATION MINISTER/ MINISTRY
I&B MINISTER/ MINISTRY
SWAMY
GURUMURTHY
RAJIVA MALHOTRA
ALL BJP SPOKESMEN
RSS
VHP
AVBP
RAJEEV CHANDRASHEKHAR
MOHANDAS PAI
RAM MADHAV
RAJ THACKREY
UDDHAV THACKREY
SRI SRI RAVISHANKAR
SADGURU JAGGI VASUDEV
BABA RAMDEV
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
SPEAKERS OF ALL STATE ASSEMBLIES
SOLI BABY
SALVE BABY
FALI BABY
KATJU BABY
KIRON KHER
MEENAKSHI LEKHI
SMRITI IRANI
ARUN SHOURIE
MADHI TREHAN
MADHU KISHWAR
SUDHIR CHAUDHARY
GEN GD BAKSHI
SAMBIT PATRA
RSN SINGH
SHASHI THAROOR
ANUPAM KHER
CHETAN BHAGAT
N NARAYANA MURTHY
SUDHA MURTHY
CLOSET COMMIE ARNAB GOSWMI
RAJDEEP SARDESAI
NAVIKA KUMAR
ZAKKA JACOB
ANAND NARASIMHAN
SRINIVASAN JAIN
SONAL MEHROTRA KAPOOR
VIKRAM CHANDRA
FAYE DSOUZA
NIDHI RAZDAN
RAVISH KUMAR
PRANNOY JAMES ROY
AROON PURIE
VINEET JAIN
RAGHAV BAHL
SEEMA CHISTI
DILEEP PADGOANKAR
VIR SANGHVI
PRASOON JOSHI
PRITISH NANDI
ASHISH NANDI
JEAN DREZE
ARUNA ROY
HARSH MANDER
NANDITA DAS
ANAND PATWARDHAN
VINOD DUA
RAJAT SHARMA
JULIO RIBEIRO
ALL CONGRESS SPOKESMEN
RAHUL GANDHI
SONIA GANDHI
PRIYANKA GANDHI
LK ADVANI
MURLI MANOHAR JOSHI
SHOBHAA DE
ARUNDHATI ROY
SURESH GOPI
MOHANLAL
BARKHA DUTT
SHEKHAR GUPTA
SIDHARTH VARADARAJAN
N RAM
MANI SHANKAR AIYERAN
ROMILA THAPAR
IRFAN HABIB
NIVEDITA MENON
AYESHA KIDWAI
KARAN THAPAR
CNR RAO
PM BHARGHAVA
KIRAN MAJUMDAR SHAW
SHAZIA ILMI
VIR SANGHVI
PAVAN VARMA
RAMACHANDRA GUHA
DANIEL RAJA
BRINDA KARAT
PRAKASH KARAT
SITARAM YECHURY
SUMEET CHOPRA
DINESH VARSHNEY
ANNA VETTIKAD
SUDHEENDRA KULKARNI
PRAKASH RAJ
KANCHA ILAIH
JOHN DAYAL
KAVITA KRISHNAN
TEESTA SETALVAD
SWARA TRRR BHASKAR ( OR IS IT PRRRR ? )
RANA AYYUB
SNEHLA RASHID
PAGALIKA GHOSE
JOHN BRITTAS
KAMALAHASSAN
DILIP CHERIAN
SUHEL SETH
VC OF JNU
VC OF DU/ JU/ TISS
DEAN OF FTII
IRA BHASKAR
ADMIRAL LN RAMDAS
KAVITA RAMDAS
LALITA RAMDAS
NAYANTARA SEHGAL
RSS
VHP
AVBP
VIVEK OBEROI
MOHAN BHAGWAT
JAVED AKTHAR
NASSERUDDIN SHAH
EVERY HINDU ORGANISTAION
ALL DESH BHAKT LEADERS
SPREAD ON SOCIAL MEDIA
SUBHASH PALEKAR
NIRMALA SITARAMAN
FINANCE MINISTRY
MADHAV GADGIL
K KASTURIRANGAN
MS SWAMINATHAN
PMO
PM MODI
NITI AYOG
AMITABH KANT
NGT
ENVIRONMENT MINISTRY/ MINISTER
FOOD MINISTER/ MINISTRY
WATER MINISTER/ MINISTRY
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMS)
AJIT DOVAL
CBI
RAW
IB
ED
NIA
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
PRESIDENT OF INDIA
VP OF INDIA
ALL CENTRAL/ STATE MINISTRIES/ MINISTERS..
ALL MAJOR DISTRICT COLLECTORS / PROMINENT IAS OFFICERS .
CMs OF ALL STATES
GOVERNORS OF ALL STTES
CJI
ATTORNEY GENERAL
ALL SUPREME COURT JUDGES
ALL HIGH COURT CHIEF JUSTICES
DGPs OF ALL STATES
IGs OF ALL STATES
DEFENCE MINISTER/ MINISTRY
ALL 3 ARMED FORCE CHIEFS
AMIT SHAH
HOME MINISTRY
NCERT
EDUCATION MINISTER/ MINISTRY
I&B MINISTER/ MINISTRY
SWAMY
GURUMURTHY
RAJIVA MALHOTRA
ALL BJP SPOKESMEN
RSS
VHP
AVBP
RAJEEV CHANDRASHEKHAR
MOHANDAS PAI
RAM MADHAV
RAJ THACKREY
UDDHAV THACKREY
SRI SRI RAVISHANKAR
SADGURU JAGGI VASUDEV
BABA RAMDEV
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
SPEAKERS OF ALL STATE ASSEMBLIES
SOLI BABY
SALVE BABY
FALI BABY
KATJU BABY
KIRON KHER
MEENAKSHI LEKHI
SMRITI IRANI
ARUN SHOURIE
MADHI TREHAN
MADHU KISHWAR
SUDHIR CHAUDHARY
GEN GD BAKSHI
SAMBIT PATRA
RSN SINGH
SHASHI THAROOR
ANUPAM KHER
CHETAN BHAGAT
N NARAYANA MURTHY
SUDHA MURTHY
CLOSET COMMIE ARNAB GOSWMI
RAJDEEP SARDESAI
NAVIKA KUMAR
ZAKKA JACOB
ANAND NARASIMHAN
SRINIVASAN JAIN
SONAL MEHROTRA KAPOOR
VIKRAM CHANDRA
FAYE DSOUZA
NIDHI RAZDAN
RAVISH KUMAR
PRANNOY JAMES ROY
AROON PURIE
VINEET JAIN
RAGHAV BAHL
SEEMA CHISTI
DILEEP PADGOANKAR
VIR SANGHVI
PRASOON JOSHI
PRITISH NANDI
ASHISH NANDI
JEAN DREZE
ARUNA ROY
HARSH MANDER
NANDITA DAS
ANAND PATWARDHAN
VINOD DUA
RAJAT SHARMA
JULIO RIBEIRO
ALL CONGRESS SPOKESMEN
RAHUL GANDHI
SONIA GANDHI
PRIYANKA GANDHI
LK ADVANI
MURLI MANOHAR JOSHI
SHOBHAA DE
ARUNDHATI ROY
SURESH GOPI
MOHANLAL
BARKHA DUTT
SHEKHAR GUPTA
SIDHARTH VARADARAJAN
N RAM
MANI SHANKAR AIYERAN
ROMILA THAPAR
IRFAN HABIB
NIVEDITA MENON
AYESHA KIDWAI
KARAN THAPAR
CNR RAO
PM BHARGHAVA
KIRAN MAJUMDAR SHAW
SHAZIA ILMI
VIR SANGHVI
PAVAN VARMA
RAMACHANDRA GUHA
DANIEL RAJA
BRINDA KARAT
PRAKASH KARAT
SITARAM YECHURY
SUMEET CHOPRA
DINESH VARSHNEY
ANNA VETTIKAD
SUDHEENDRA KULKARNI
PRAKASH RAJ
KANCHA ILAIH
JOHN DAYAL
KAVITA KRISHNAN
TEESTA SETALVAD
SWARA TRRR BHASKAR ( OR IS IT PRRRR ? )
RANA AYYUB
SNEHLA RASHID
PAGALIKA GHOSE
JOHN BRITTAS
KAMALAHASSAN
DILIP CHERIAN
SUHEL SETH
VC OF JNU
VC OF DU/ JU/ TISS
DEAN OF FTII
IRA BHASKAR
ADMIRAL LN RAMDAS
KAVITA RAMDAS
LALITA RAMDAS
NAYANTARA SEHGAL
RSS
VHP
AVBP
VIVEK OBEROI
MOHAN BHAGWAT
JAVED AKTHAR
NASSERUDDIN SHAH
EVERY HINDU ORGANISTAION
ALL DESH BHAKT LEADERS
SPREAD ON SOCIAL MEDIA
- Respected Captain , Subash Palekar tweets Organic farming is more dangerous and poisonous than chemical farming
https://twitter.com/subhash_palekar/status/737118451106492418
with Gratitude.
https://twitter.com/subhash_palekar/status/737118451106492418
THIS MANDHA BUDDHI SUBHASH PALEKAR DOES NOT KNOW WHAT IS ORGANIC FARMING..
THIS IS THE IDIOT PM MODI GAVE PADMA SRI AWARD -- AND MADE HIM A NATiONAL ICON.
WE THE PEOPLE WARN MODI--
JUST BECAUSE SUBHASH PALEKAR GIVES YOU AN EGO MASSAGE-- WE WONT ALLOW HIM TO BLEED BHARATMATA..
JP NADDA DID NOTHING FOR 5 YEARS AS HEALTH MINISTER..HE HAS BEEN PROMOTED..
HAVE YOU SEEN JP NADDA BEHAVING LIKE A WORM WHEN MODI LOOKS AT HIM ?
ALL GUJJU NO 2 WANTS IS AN EGO MASSAGE .. HE CANT GET SLEEP AT NIGHT WITHOUT THIS .. MODI HAS PACKED HIS CABINET WITH SYCOPHANTS ..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/07/comments-overflow-for-inoperative-load_17.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..- PUT ABOVE CRITICAL COMMENT IN WEBSITES OF--
SUBHASH PALEKAR
NIRMALA SITARAMAN
FINANCE MINISTRY
MADHAV GADGIL
K KASTURIRANGAN
MS SWAMINATHAN
PMO
PM MODI
NITI AYOG
AMITABH KANT
NGT
ENVIRONMENT MINISTRY/ MINISTER
FOOD MINISTER/ MINISTRY
WATER MINISTER/ MINISTRY
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMS)
AJIT DOVAL
CBI
RAW
IB
ED
NIA
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
PRESIDENT OF INDIA
VP OF INDIA
ALL CENTRAL/ STATE MINISTRIES/ MINISTERS..
ALL MAJOR DISTRICT COLLECTORS / PROMINENT IAS OFFICERS .
CMs OF ALL STATES
GOVERNORS OF ALL STTES
CJI
ATTORNEY GENERAL
ALL SUPREME COURT JUDGES
ALL HIGH COURT CHIEF JUSTICES
DGPs OF ALL STATES
IGs OF ALL STATES
DEFENCE MINISTER/ MINISTRY
ALL 3 ARMED FORCE CHIEFS
AMIT SHAH
HOME MINISTRY
NCERT
EDUCATION MINISTER/ MINISTRY
I&B MINISTER/ MINISTRY
SWAMY
GURUMURTHY
RAJIVA MALHOTRA
ALL BJP SPOKESMEN
RSS
VHP
AVBP
RAJEEV CHANDRASHEKHAR
MOHANDAS PAI
RAM MADHAV
RAJ THACKREY
UDDHAV THACKREY
SRI SRI RAVISHANKAR
SADGURU JAGGI VASUDEV
BABA RAMDEV
SPEAKER LOK SABHA
SPEAKER RAJYA SABHA
SPEAKERS OF ALL STATE ASSEMBLIES
SOLI BABY
SALVE BABY
FALI BABY
KATJU BABY
KIRON KHER
MEENAKSHI LEKHI
SMRITI IRANI
ARUN SHOURIE
MADHI TREHAN
MADHU KISHWAR
SUDHIR CHAUDHARY
GEN GD BAKSHI
SAMBIT PATRA
RSN SINGH
SHASHI THAROOR
ANUPAM KHER
CHETAN BHAGAT
N NARAYANA MURTHY
SUDHA MURTHY
CLOSET COMMIE ARNAB GOSWMI
RAJDEEP SARDESAI
NAVIKA KUMAR
ZAKKA JACOB
ANAND NARASIMHAN
SRINIVASAN JAIN
SONAL MEHROTRA KAPOOR
VIKRAM CHANDRA
FAYE DSOUZA
NIDHI RAZDAN
RAVISH KUMAR
PRANNOY JAMES ROY
AROON PURIE
VINEET JAIN
RAGHAV BAHL
SEEMA CHISTI
DILEEP PADGOANKAR
VIR SANGHVI
PRASOON JOSHI
PRITISH NANDI
ASHISH NANDI
JEAN DREZE
ARUNA ROY
HARSH MANDER
NANDITA DAS
ANAND PATWARDHAN
VINOD DUA
RAJAT SHARMA
JULIO RIBEIRO
ALL CONGRESS SPOKESMEN
RAHUL GANDHI
SONIA GANDHI
PRIYANKA GANDHI
LK ADVANI
MURLI MANOHAR JOSHI
SHOBHAA DE
ARUNDHATI ROY
SURESH GOPI
MOHANLAL
BARKHA DUTT
SHEKHAR GUPTA
SIDHARTH VARADARAJAN
N RAM
MANI SHANKAR AIYERAN
ROMILA THAPAR
IRFAN HABIB
NIVEDITA MENON
AYESHA KIDWAI
KARAN THAPAR
CNR RAO
PM BHARGHAVA
KIRAN MAJUMDAR SHAW
SHAZIA ILMI
VIR SANGHVI
PAVAN VARMA
RAMACHANDRA GUHA
DANIEL RAJA
BRINDA KARAT
PRAKASH KARAT
SITARAM YECHURY
SUMEET CHOPRA
DINESH VARSHNEY
ANNA VETTIKAD
SUDHEENDRA KULKARNI
PRAKASH RAJ
KANCHA ILAIH
JOHN DAYAL
KAVITA KRISHNAN
TEESTA SETALVAD
SWARA TRRR BHASKAR ( OR IS IT PRRRR ? )
RANA AYYUB
SNEHLA RASHID
PAGALIKA GHOSE
JOHN BRITTAS
KAMALAHASSAN
DILIP CHERIAN
SUHEL SETH
VC OF JNU
VC OF DU/ JU/ TISS
DEAN OF FTII
IRA BHASKAR
ADMIRAL LN RAMDAS
KAVITA RAMDAS
LALITA RAMDAS
NAYANTARA SEHGAL
RSS
VHP
AVBP
VIVEK OBEROI
MOHAN BHAGWAT
JAVED AKTHAR
NASSERUDDIN SHAH
EVERY HINDU ORGANISTAION
ALL DESH BHAKT LEADERS
SPREAD ON SOCIAL MEDIA
- Captain,
What is the difference between organic agriculture and ZBNF?what are the cons of ZBNF?In subash palekar's method ,he says of using jeevamrutham using desi cow but without any processes of sowing,tillage...I think he is using distinct term ZBNF instead of organic farming.I dont understand what he meant by organic farming.He says "Organic farming has launched the surface feeder worm orm Eisenia Foetida of the class oligochata and family Cumbricidae, imported from Europe and Canada in India".can you please clear the air on this issue?- DO NOT LISTEN TO AN IDIOT CUM IGNORAMUS.
MODI IS A INCOMPETENT PM -- TO SPONSOR SUBHASH PALEKAR..
BEFORE THE GREEN REVOLUTION --INDIA DID ORGANIC FARMING
OUR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERISTIES HAVE PROFESSORS WHO WERE DISCARDS OF THE SCHOOL CEREBRAL BARREL .. THEY ARE NOT EVEN THE BOTTOM DREGS..
THESE USELESS PROFESSORS TEACH CHEMICAL FARMING..
THE LIBRARIES OF THESE COLLEGES NEED TO BE BURNT..
AAARRRGGHH PPTTHHEEOOYYYYYYYYYYYYY
MODI HAS MADE SUBHASH PALEKAR THE NATIONs ICON..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
THESE USELESS PROFESSORS TEACH CHEMICAL FARMING..
THE LIBRARIES OF THESE COLLEGES NEED TO BE BURNT..
AAARRRGGHH PPTTHHEEOOYYYYYYYYYYYYY
MODI HAS MADE SUBHASH PALEKAR THE NATIONs ICON..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
Subash Palekar spins a nice story in his book...
I laughed and threw them out (he wrote in end to donate those to needy farmers) my gosh.
According to him organic farming is corporate conspiracy and has brought the same chemical laden inputs in a different way.
He sells the human urine therapy in his speeches by saying he cured several conditions like arthritis by it. He claims to be have done research with desi cow and it's dung and urine. All sucked up to it. It shows that we have completely lost our memory of organic cow based farming in just 50 years for someone so lame to claim it as his own research and sweat...
He quotes all dasa and poison injected versions of vedic literature. He does not have any idea about terrain and soil dynamics. He only sells his jeevamrith formula and says it enough. Clearly not understood what is humus and its functions. He completely does not even mention the macro factors in farming. The success rate of his method is very low as well.
I laughed and threw them out (he wrote in end to donate those to needy farmers) my gosh.
According to him organic farming is corporate conspiracy and has brought the same chemical laden inputs in a different way.
He sells the human urine therapy in his speeches by saying he cured several conditions like arthritis by it. He claims to be have done research with desi cow and it's dung and urine. All sucked up to it. It shows that we have completely lost our memory of organic cow based farming in just 50 years for someone so lame to claim it as his own research and sweat...
He quotes all dasa and poison injected versions of vedic literature. He does not have any idea about terrain and soil dynamics. He only sells his jeevamrith formula and says it enough. Clearly not understood what is humus and its functions. He completely does not even mention the macro factors in farming. The success rate of his method is very low as well.
SUBHASH PALEKAR THINKS INDIA IS A SMALL BACK YARD GARDEN..
HE DOES OT KNOW THE BASICS OF SOIL AND WATER ..
HIS KNOWLEDGE OF ORGANIC FARMING--WHICH INDIA DID FOR SEVERAL MILLENNIUMS ( AS WE WERE VEGANS ) IS LITERALLY ZERO..
THIS IS LIKE A BRAIN SURGERY THEATRE SWEEPER ( OF SOME BIHAR GEN HOSPITAL ) CLAIMING TO BE THE BEST BRAIN SURGEON..
HE HAS FOOLED MODI AND ALL THINK TANKS OF INDIA..
SUBHASH PALEKAR HAS A DEGREE FROM COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE , NAGPUR..
SHUT DOWN THESE USELESS AGRICULTURE COLLEGES IF THEIR BEST PRODUCT IS SUBHASH PALEKAR..
WHEN I WROTE MY CHEMICAL TANKER BLOGS , MANY THANKED ME FOR GIVING A GLIMPSE OF THE REAL THING..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2013/02/stowage-of-multiple-parcels-on-chemical.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
HE DOES OT KNOW THE BASICS OF SOIL AND WATER ..
HIS KNOWLEDGE OF ORGANIC FARMING--WHICH INDIA DID FOR SEVERAL MILLENNIUMS ( AS WE WERE VEGANS ) IS LITERALLY ZERO..
THIS IS LIKE A BRAIN SURGERY THEATRE SWEEPER ( OF SOME BIHAR GEN HOSPITAL ) CLAIMING TO BE THE BEST BRAIN SURGEON..
HE HAS FOOLED MODI AND ALL THINK TANKS OF INDIA..
SUBHASH PALEKAR HAS A DEGREE FROM COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE , NAGPUR..
SHUT DOWN THESE USELESS AGRICULTURE COLLEGES IF THEIR BEST PRODUCT IS SUBHASH PALEKAR..
WHEN I WROTE MY CHEMICAL TANKER BLOGS , MANY THANKED ME FOR GIVING A GLIMPSE OF THE REAL THING..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2013/02/stowage-of-multiple-parcels-on-chemical.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
WE WARN PM MODI..
IF YOU IMPLEMENT THAT IDOT AND IGNORAMUS SUBHASH PALEKARSs METHOD OF ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING, INDIA CANNOT EXPORT FOOD.. WE WILL BE BANNED .. WE HAVE THE BEST TOP SOIL ON THE PLANET..
THERE ARE STRICT PROCEDURES..
THESE MUST BE TAUGHT IN OUR AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.. SACK ALL INCOMPETENT PROFESSORS FROM INDIAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES .. CHANGE THE SYLLABUS TO A NEW ONE..
READ ALL 6 PARTS OF THE UNFINISHED POST BELOW-- ( 60% COMPLETE )
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
WE WARN PM MODI..
IF YOU IMPLEMENT THAT IDOT AND IGNORAMUS SUBHASH PALEKARSs METHOD OF ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING, INDIA CANNOT EXPORT FOOD.. WE WILL BE BANNED .. WE HAVE THE BEST TOP SOIL ON THE PLANET..
THERE ARE STRICT PROCEDURES..
THESE MUST BE TAUGHT IN OUR AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.. SACK ALL INCOMPETENT PROFESSORS FROM INDIAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES .. CHANGE THE SYLLABUS TO A NEW ONE..
READ ALL 6 PARTS OF THE UNFINISHED POST BELOW-- ( 60% COMPLETE )
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
- IN FIVE YEARS OF MISRULE, PM MODI HAS LED INDIA TO DROUGHT..
IN THE NEXT FIVE YEARS MODI WILL LEAD INDIA TO FAMINE ...
INDIANS WERE THE FIRST TO DO ORGANIC FARMING AS WE WERE VEGANS , DESPITE BEING BLESSED WITH ENORMOUS AMOUNTS OF MEAT AND FISH..
WE DID ORGANIC FARMING TILL A DESH DROHI NAMED MS SWAMINATHAN INTRODUCED GREEN REVOLUTION TO INDIA..
THE SCIENCE OF SOIL IS EXTREMELY COMPLICATED.. THE SOIL IS NOT THE SAME ALL OVER INDIA..
IF WE WANT TO EXPORT "ORGANIC FOOD" IT HAS TO BE CERTIFIED BY APPROVED INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES..
WE HAVE LOST ALL OUR ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE PASSED DOWN FOR MILLENNIUMS FROM A FARMER DAD TO HIS SON..
NOW WE HAVE TO REBUILD FROM SCRATCH..
AN IDIOT CUM IGNORAMUS LIKE SUBHASH PALEKAR CANNOT DO THIS .. IT REQUIRES IIT BTECH TYPE BRAINS TO RECLAIM OUR TOP SOIL AND PRISTINE WATER WHICH WE LOST IN 55 YEARS FLAT..
I BET SUBHASH PALEKAR WONT EVEN KNOW THE pH VALUE OF WATER..
WHY DID MODI MAKE A STUPID SAFFRON CLAD WOMAN LIKE UMA BHARATI GANGES MINISTER? BECAUSE HE WANTED TO MILK VOTES..
I PREDICT THAT GUJJU NO 2 MODI WILL BLEED BHARATMATA MORE THAN ROTHSCHILDs AGENT KATHIAWARI JAIN JEW GUJJU NO 1 GANDHI.
CHILDLESS MODI NOW WANTS NOBEL PRIZE FROM HIS JEWISH MASTERS.. HE DOES NOT CARE..
WE CARE BECAUSE WE WANT OUR DESCENDANTS TO DO WELL.
READ ALL 6 PARTS OF THE UNFINISHED POST BELOW-- ONLY 65% COMPLETE..
https://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/06/india-must-revert-to-organic_23.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
Brigadier Sudhir Sawant
mumbai zbnf is held under him
wiki -----"He joined Aam Aadmi Party Maharashtra unit on 12 January 2018 in presence of Arvind Kejriwal [5] and on 6 June 2018 under presence of AAP National Secretary Pankaj Gupta he has been appointed as Aam Aadmi Party Maharashtra Unit Head Convenor"
mumbai zbnf is held under him
wiki -----"He joined Aam Aadmi Party Maharashtra unit on 12 January 2018 in presence of Arvind Kejriwal [5] and on 6 June 2018 under presence of AAP National Secretary Pankaj Gupta he has been appointed as Aam Aadmi Party Maharashtra Unit Head Convenor"
SP copied directly from masanobu fukuoka's "one straw revolution" i guess.
only good thing is he is pressing for desi cows.
only good thing is he is pressing for desi cows.
BY THE END OF MODIs SECOND TERM--INDIA WILL HAVE SEVERE FAMINE
TIME FOR ISRAEL TO SINK "SOIL HOOKS" INTO BHARATMATA.
TIME FOR ISRAEL TO SINK "SOIL HOOKS" INTO BHARATMATA.
- ttp://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2012/06/murder-of-pazhassi-raja-capt-ajit.html
PAZHASSI RAJA WAS A KERALA THIYYA PRINCE , FROM A KINGDOM CALLED "KOTTAYAM" NORTH EAST OF CALICUT, KERALA.. THE ORIGINAL MAP MADE BY THE BRITISH IS IN THE POST ABOVE..
PAZHASSI RAJA WAS NOT A CRYPTO JEW VARMA..
THE ROTHSCHILD HISTORIAN NAMED HIM KERALA VARMA..
SAME WAY THE ORIGINAL KOTTAKKAL VAIDYA SALA WAS NORTH OF ELATHUR OF CALICUT DISTRICT RUN BY THIYYAS -- NOT IN THE PRESENT DAY KOTTAKKAL 45 KM SOUTH OF CALICUT.
ALL KERALA BALLADS OF KALARI WARRIOR VALOUR IS THIYYA VALOUR.. NOT NAIR VALOUR..
HISTORY OF KERALA MUST BE RE-WRITTEN
KING MAHABALI WAS A THIYYA..
ARYABHATTA WAS NOT A BIHARI, HE WAS ARYAN BHATTATHIRIPPAD..
BHATTATHIRIPPADS ARE MATH KNOWING CREAM OF KERALA NAMBOODIRIS..
NAMBOODIRIS WERE SANSKRIT SPEAKING AND VEDA ORAL ROUTE KNOWING CREAM OF THIYYAS.
THE DANAVA CIVILIZATION OF THIYYA KINGS MAHABALI / VIROCHANA/ HIRANYAKASHIPU PREDATED THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION BY SEVERAL MILLENNIUMS..
KERALA THIYYAS WERE WORLD WIDE NAVIGATORS.. EGYPTIAN KINGS WERE PURE KERALA THIYYAS. ROMAN EMPERORS AND SENATORS WERE KERALA THIYYA MIXED BLOOD.
MAYA DANAVA WAS A KERALA THIYYA..
QUEEN DIDO WAS A PURE KERALA THIYYA WOMAN..
FAMOUS ANCIENT QUEENS/ HEROINES QUEEN DIDO / QUEEN NEFERTITI / QUEEN OF SHEBA/ QUEEN HATSHEPSUT/ QUEEN CLEOPATRA/ MATH PROF HYPATHIA ETC ) WERE KERALA THIYYAS..
THE MOTHER OF KING SOLOMON BATH SHEBA WAS A KERALA NAMBOODIRI.
THE WIFE OF KING SOLOMON “QUEEN OF SHEBA “ WAS A KERALA THIYYA.
QUEEN DIDO WAS A KERALA THIYYA PRINCESS .. SHE WAS ALSO KNOWN AS THE WANDERING SEA QUEEN AS SHE SPENT HER TIME BETWEEN GLORIOUS ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS SHE FOUNDED -- CARTHAGE ( TUNISIA ) , CORDOBA ( SPAIN ) , ALEXANDRIA ( EGYPT ) , TRIPOLI ( LEBANON ) CYRENE ( LIBYA ) AND UGARIT ( SYRIA )..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/land-of-punt-ophir-and-sheba-is-north.html
KERALA SAGES BUILD THE EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS AS PER VAASTU..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/land-of-punt-ophir-and-sheba-is-north.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2016/10/eight-sided-pyramid-of-giza-egypt.html
LIES WONT WORK..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2011/10/worst-racists-on-planet-earth-capt-ajit.html
MALAYALAM IS THE SECOND OLDEST LANGUAGE ON THIS PLANET.. MALAYALAM IS NOT A TAPE WORM FROM THE STOMACH OF TAMIL..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
Mahodaya,
I watched 2009 Pazhassi Raja movie yesterday with subtitles on Hotstar.
He is also from Varma family.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazhassi_Raja
here you can see Painting of Pazhassi Raja by R agent Ravi Varma displayed in Pazhassi raja Museum, Kozhikkode.
What is the catch captain?
.I watched 2009 Pazhassi Raja movie yesterday with subtitles on Hotstar.
He is also from Varma family.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazhassi_Raja
here you can see Painting of Pazhassi Raja by R agent Ravi Varma displayed in Pazhassi raja Museum, Kozhikkode.
What is the catch captain?
- ttp://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2012/06/murder-of-pazhassi-raja-capt-ajit.html
PAZHASSI RAJA WAS A KERALA THIYYA PRINCE , FROM A KINGDOM CALLED "KOTTAYAM" NORTH EAST OF CALICUT, KERALA.. THE ORIGINAL MAP MADE BY THE BRITISH IS IN THE POST ABOVE..
PAZHASSI RAJA WAS NOT A CRYPTO JEW VARMA..
THE ROTHSCHILD HISTORIAN NAMED HIM KERALA VARMA..
SAME WAY THE ORIGINAL KOTTAKKAL VAIDYA SALA WAS NORTH OF ELATHUR OF CALICUT DISTRICT RUN BY THIYYAS -- NOT IN THE PRESENT DAY KOTTAKKAL 45 KM SOUTH OF CALICUT.
ALL KERALA BALLADS OF KALARI WARRIOR VALOUR IS THIYYA VALOUR.. NOT NAIR VALOUR..
HISTORY OF KERALA MUST BE RE-WRITTEN
KING MAHABALI WAS A THIYYA..
ARYABHATTA WAS NOT A BIHARI, HE WAS ARYAN BHATTATHIRIPPAD..
BHATTATHIRIPPADS ARE MATH KNOWING CREAM OF KERALA NAMBOODIRIS..
NAMBOODIRIS WERE SANSKRIT SPEAKING AND VEDA ORAL ROUTE KNOWING CREAM OF THIYYAS.
THE DANAVA CIVILIZATION OF THIYYA KINGS MAHABALI / VIROCHANA/ HIRANYAKASHIPU PREDATED HE VEDIC CIVILIZATION BY SEVERAL MILLENNIUMS..
KERALA THIYYAS WERE WORLD WIDE NAVIGATORS.. EGYPTIAN KINGS WERE PURE KERALA THIYYAS. ROMAN EMPERORS AND SENATORS WERE KERALA THIYYA MIXED BLOOD.
MAYA DANAVA WAS A KERALA THIYYA..
QUEEN DIDO WAS A PURE KERALA THIYYA WOMAN..
FAMOUS ANCIENT QUEENS/ HEROINES QUEEN DIDO / QUEEN NEFERTITI / QUEEN OF SHEBA/ QUEEN HATSHEPSUT/ QUEEN CLEOPATRA/ MATH PROF HYPATHIA ETC ) WERE KERALA THIYYAS..
THE MOTHER OF KING SOLOMON BATH SHEBA WAS A KERALA NAMBOODIRI.
THE WIFE OF KING SOLOMON “QUEEN OF SHEBA “ WAS A KERALA THIYYA.
QUEEN DIDO WAS A KERALA THIYYA PRINCESS .. SHE WAS ALSO KNOWN AS THE WANDERING SEA QUEEN AS SHE SPENT HER TIME BETWEEN GLORIOUS ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS SHE FOUNDED -- CARTHAGE ( TUNISIA ) , CORDOBA ( SPAIN ) , ALEXANDRIA ( EGYPT ) , TRIPOLI ( LEBANON ) CYRENE ( LIBYA ) AND UGARIT ( SYRIA )..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/land-of-punt-ophir-and-sheba-is-north.html
KERALA SAGES BUILD THE EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS AS PER VAASTU..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2017/05/land-of-punt-ophir-and-sheba-is-north.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2016/10/eight-sided-pyramid-of-giza-egypt.html
LIES WONT WORK..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2011/10/worst-racists-on-planet-earth-capt-ajit.html
MALAYALAM IS THE SECOND OLDEST LANGUAGE ON THIS PLANET.. MALAYALAM IS NOT A TAPE WORM FROM THE STOMACH OF TAMIL..
capt ajit vadakayil
..
- https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/filling-iran-oil-gap-in-india-us-supplies-outshine-middle-east-crude/articleshow/69926762.cms
US WANTS INDIA TO MOTHBALL OUR ENORMOUS RESERVES OF COAL..
TO ACHIEVE THIS THEY HAVE PUT PM MODI ON CHANNE KA JHAAD.. THE JEWS MADE MODI CHAMPION OF EARTH..
US SHALE FRACKED OIL IS CHEMICAL LADEN AND SPOILS ALL MACHINERY..
WE KNOW THE "INHEIN HATAAYIYE HAIMEIN LAH AAYIYE " MOMENT OF 1976 ( WITH MOSSAD/ CIA ) , WITH SOME INDIANS IN SARDARJEE HEAD GEAR..
WHEN MANI SHANKAR AIYAR DID IT IN PAKISTAN , MODI WENT BALLISTIC.. HE MADE IT PERSONAL , AS A SUPARI FOR ASSASSINATION TO PUT FOG ..
IRAN IS SHIA , PAKISTANI ARE SUNNI..
IT IS GOOD TO HAVE IRAN AS A FRIEND..
AMERICA IS UNRELIABLE AS AN ALLY.. IF WE BUY TOO MANY ARMS FROM USA, SANCTIONS ON SPARES WILL FOLLOW...
MISSILE SHIELD FROM ISRAEL/ USA WILL NOT WORK AGAINST NATO NATIONS...
SUBMARINES BOUGHT FROM NATO NATIONS CANNOT HIDE-- ALL NATO NATIONS CALL POLL IT UNDERWATER..
WE ASK PM MODI-- WORK FOR BHARATMATA , NOT YOUR JEWISH MASTERS..
MODI, DO NOT ANTAGONIZE PUTIN.. IF PUTIN SELLS S400 MISSILE SHIELD TO PAKISTAN , WE CANNOT WIN ANY WAR..
US/ ISRAELI ANTI-MISSILE SHIELD HAS ZERO PERCENT SUCCESS RATE AGAINST INCOMING HYPERSONIC MISSILES, WHILE S400 HAS 100% SUCCESS RATE..
WE KNOW WHY MODI WANTS TO IMPORT USELESS US SHALE OIL FROM HALF WAY AROUND THE PLANET, WHEN WE CAN GET PRISTINE IRANIAN OIL AT OUR DOORSTEP.. USE IRANIAN SHIPS ON VOYAGE CHARTER..
INDIA MUST MAINTAIN STRATEGIC CRUDE OIL RESERVES FOR WAR .. THE OIL COMMINGLED / BLENDED MUST BE COMPATIBLE -- LEST WE HAVE TO USE SHOVELS INSTEAD OF PUMPS..
ALL BENAMI MEDIA CHANNELS ARE WARNING , IF MODI DOES NOT CUT DOWN INDIAs EMISSION OF CARBON DI OXIDE MILLIONS OF INDIANS WILL DIE DUE TO EXTREME HEAT WAVE..
PARIS COP21 IGNORED POTENT GREENHOUSE GASES METHANE AND NITROUS OXIDE..
If the GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL ( GWP ) is 1 for Carbon Dioxide, it is 302 for Nitrous oxide and 104 for Methane over a 20 year period…
WE KNOW WHY MODI HAS CHOSEN CHITPAVAN JEW NAY BRAHMIN PRAKASH JAVEDEKAR AS INDIAs ENVIRONMENTAL MINISTER..
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2018/12/poland-katowice-cop-24-global-warming.html
http://ajitvadakayil.blogspot.com/2019/02/america-caused-global-warming-with_9.html
capt ajit vadakayil
..
BELOW: AN EXAMPLE OF "CLEAR THINKING"
BELOW: 4 OUT OF 125 BATCH MATES- MASCHERENHAS, VADAKAYIL, MALIK, SRINIVASAN..
GOOD TO REMINISCENCE OVER A COUPLE OF BEERS AFTER 46 YEARS
THE WORDS "REMEMBER WHEN" WAS OFT REPEATED.. WE WERE 250 CADETS ON A TRAINING SHIP FOR 2 YEARS ..
HEART WARMING MEMORIES NEVER DIE !
THIS POST IS NOW CONTINUED TO PART 7 BELOW—
CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL
..
SINCE MODI BECAME PM 5 YEARS AGO..
EVERY YEAR , TWO MONTHS BEFORE MONSOONS , THIS BLOGSITE HAS BEEN ASKING HIM TO DESILT DAM RESERVOIRS..
I ASKED TO PREVENT EVAPORATION FROM RESERVOIRS, LAKES AND CANALS..
I ASKED THAT IN ALL PLACES WHERE GROUNDWATER LEVEL HAS BECOME LOW , WE MUST HAVE RAIN WATER HARVESTING..
MODI HAS DONE NOTHING... HE WANTS EGO MASSAGE AND VOTE MILKING KA NUSKE-- BASSSSS !
NOW HE IS DOING HOOOO HAAAAA OVER THE ISSUE ..
I WONDER WHO IS THE BIGGER CONMAN -- GAURAV PRADHAN OR NARENDRA DAMODARDAS MODI...
IT IS ALL ABOUT THEMSELVES--NOT THE WATAN..
capt ajit vadakayil
..